A indução de tolerância ao aloenxerto, no contexto do transplante clínico, é um dos maiores desafios da imunologia. Existem pacientes transplantados que mesmo após a retirada de imunossupressores mantêm a função estável do aloenxerto. Este estado é chamado de tolerância operacional. Nosso objetivo foi analisar se os indivíduos em tolerância operacional tem um perfil imunológico molecular diferencial em relação aos outros grupos clínicos, visando identificar potenciais mecanismos envolvidos na manutenção desse estado de não agressão ao órgão transplantado. Analisamos 10 doadores renais saudáveis (Sau) e 32 indivíduos transplantados renais, sendo 4 tolerantes operacionais (TO), 11 com rejeição crônica (RC), 12 com função renal estável e imunossupressão convencional (Est) e 5 com função renal estável e baixa imunossupressão (BI). Analisamos a expressão gênica, em células mononucleares do sangue, de um painel de moléculas predominantemente imunorreguladoras ou próinflamatórias (REGULA/INFLAMA), por PCR em tempo real, em duas amostras, com intervalos de 4-6 meses. Quantificamos as células T CD4+CD25+Foxp3+, por citometria de fluxo, e estudamos a ativação de duas vias de sinalização, IL-6/STAT3 e IL-4/STAT6, por PhosFlow, nos diferentes grupos de estudo. Nós observamos algumas diferenças significativas entre os indivíduos TO e os outros grupos de estudo, (p<0,05). A expressão dos genes de TGF- e TGF-R foi maior no grupo de indivíduos TO em comparação aos grupos Est e BI, analisando-se 2 tempos distintos. A expressão de GATA-3 foi maior no grupo TO comparado a todos os outros grupos de estudo. A expressão gênica de Foxp3 foi maior no grupo TO comparado aos grupos RC e BI, apenas quando analisamos as 2 amostras. Neste painel REGULA/INFLAMA, o grupo TO teve um predomínio de modificações do tipo REGULA, em ambos os tempos estudados, e maior estabilidade na expressão gênica entre as 2 amostras. Em relação as células T CD4+CD25+Foxp3+, os grupos RC e Est tiveram menores números absolutos e porcentagens em comparação aos outros grupos. O grupo TO teve uma quantidade dessas células semelhantes aos grupos Sau e BI. No estudo das vias de sinalização observamos que a fosforilação de STAT6, na região de monócitos, foi menor em indivíduos TO quando comparada a todos os outros grupos estudados. O painel de moléculas REGULA/INFLAMA, utilizado neste estudo, permitiu determinar um perfil imunológico molecular com características predominantemente imunorreguladoras no grupo TO. O perfil de fosforilação da via de sinalização IL-4/STAT6 nos indivíduos TO, na região de monócitos, nos permite interpretar que essas vias sejam mobilizadas de forma diferente, podendo participar deste estado de não agressão ao enxerto. A redução de células T CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ nos indivíduos com imunossupressão convencional (grupos RC e Est) nos permite interpretar que a imunossupressão afeta essa população celular, potencialmente imunorreguladora. O maior número de células T CD4+CD25+Foxp3+, nos indivíduos TO e BI nos permite sugerir que essas células tenham um papel importante no estado de tolerância operacional. Também o fator de transcrição GATA-3 parece desempenhar um importante papel na indução/manutenção do estado de TO, sugerindo que um desvio Th2 seja relevante para a manutenção deste estado. Os nossos resultados nos permitem interpretar que o estado de tolerância operacional tem uma repercussão sistêmica e que essas moléculas parecem ser relevantes e talvez dominantes neste estado de homeostase no contexto do transplante renal humano. / standard immunosuppression, lead us to suggest that these cells may be affected by immunosuppression. Moreover, the higher numbers of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells observed in TO and BI individuals suggest that these cells may have an important role in the induction/maintenance of these two homeostatic states of minimal, or of no aggression to the graft. Furthermore, the higher mRNA expression of GATA-3, in the TO group, suggests that a Th2 deviation may also be relevant to the maintenance of operational tolerance. Our results allowed us to interpret that the state of operational tolerance has systemic repercussion, and that the molecules studied in our work may be relevant to the process of homeostasis in the context of human kidney transplantation.

Linfomas pertencem a um grupo de neoplasias que tem em comum a origem em células linforreticulares, sendo a forma anatômica gastrointestinal a mais prevalente na espécie felina. A maioria dos animais responde inicialmente ao tratamento, contudo, sabe-se que o desequilíbrio no sistema imune, de modo geral, pode facilitar a ocorrência e a disseminação das neoplasias. Para equilibrar a atividade do sistema imune, as células com função regulatória (Tregs) são fundamentais e por isso, alvo de diversas pesquisas isoladamente ou associadas a outros marcadores, como a IL-17A e o CD8, já que tanto as Tregs quanto os linfócitos Th17 originam-se de uma mesma célula T progenitora. Assim, alterações na relação Treg/Th17 podem levar à supressão na produção de linfócitos T CD8, invertendo a relação Tregs/CD8. Também há indícios de que as Tregs alterem a função efetora de células T contra neoplasias em seres humanos e em cães. Foram objetivos deste estudo avaliar as características do linfoma gastrointestinal em felinos, a proliferação celular por meio do índice mitótico e do marcador Ki-67, a expressão imunoistoquímica de CD4, CD8, CD25 (IL-2R), FOXP3 e IL-17A e correlacionar a expressão desses marcadores com o tipo celular, imunofenótipo, resposta ao tratamento e sobrevida global. Para análise estatística foram utilizados os testes de Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis, Quiquadrado de Pearson, de correlação de Spearman e a curva Kaplan-Meyer. Dos 47 gatos, 85% apresentaram a forma linfocítica de células T, com mediana de sobrevida de 24 meses; 15% apresentaram a forma linfoblástica de células B ou T, com mediana de sobrevida de 5 meses. A expressão de Ki-67 foi mais evidente naqueles pacientes com linfoma linfoblástico de células B ou T se comparado ao linfocítico de células T, com mediana de 40,5% e 8,2%, respectivamente e p=0,002. Na análise dos marcadores do sistema imune, não foi observada marcação de IL-2R. Não houve diferença significante na expressão de IL-17 e FOXP3 entre os tipos celulares e imunofenótipo, bem como não houve correlação entre FOXP3 e IL-17 e entre FOXP3 e CD8. Considerando somente os casos de linfoma linfocítico de células T, na análise do padrão de remissão parcial (n=12) versus completa (n=27), constatou-se diferença significante quanto à sobrevida (p&lt;0,0001) e CD8 (p&#61;0,015). Na análise de sobrevida, o tratamento com L-asparaginase, clorambucil e prednisolona, os níveis de albumina sérica iguais ou maiores que 2,5g/dL e o ganho de peso no início do tratamento foram preditores de maior tempo de sobrevida. Pode-se concluir que o linfoma linfocítico de células T foi o mais prevalente na espécie felina, envolvendo principalmente o intestino delgado e com um tempo mediano de sobrevivência de 24 meses; a expressão de ki-67 foi melhor marcador para determinar a proliferação celular se comparada ao índice mitótico; a expressão de FOXP3 foi baixa e não se relacionou à resposta terapêutica e ao tempo de sobrevida. Na análise específica dos casos de linfoma linfocítico de células T, não houve correlação entre FOXP3/IL-17 e FOXP3/CD8, enquanto que a baixa expressão de CD8 correlacionou-se a maior sobrevida naqueles pacientes em remissão completa / Lymphomas belong to a group of neoplasia that have in common the origin in lymphoreticular cells, and gastrointestinal is the most prevalent anatomical form in feline species. Most animals initially respond to treatment, however, it is known that the imbalance in the immune system generally may facilitate the occurrence and spread of tumors. To balance the activity of immune system, cells with regulatory function (Treg) are essential and therefore the target of many researches, alone or in combination with other markers such as IL-17A and CD8, as well Tregs as Th17 lymphocytes originate from a same progenitor T-cell. Thus, the relation between Treg / Th17 is important since changes in this relation can lead to suppressed production of CD8&#43; T lymphocytes, inverting the relation Treg/CD8. There is also evidence that Tregs alter the effector function of T cells against tumors in human beings and dogs. The objectives of this study was to evaluate the characteristics of gastrointestinal (GI) lymphoma in cats, cell proliferation by mitotic index and Ki-67 marker, immunohistochemical expression of CD4, CD8, CD25 (IL-2R), FOXP3 and IL-17A and correlate the expression of these markers on the cell-type, immunophenotype, response to treatment and overall survival. Statistical analysis was performed by Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Pearson\'s Chi-squared test, Spearman correlation and Kaplan-Meier curve. Of the 47 cats, 85% showed lymphocytic T cells, with a median survival of 24 months; and 15% had lymphoblastic B or T cells, with a median survival of 5 months. Ki-67 expression was most evident in patients with lymphoblastic B- or T-cell lymphoma compared to lymphocytic T cell lymphoma, with a median of 40.5% and 8.2%, respectively and p &#61 0.002. In the analysis of immune system markers, immunostaing was not observed IL-2R. There was no significant difference in IL-17A and FOXP3 expression between cell-type and immunophenotypes, as well as no correlation between FOXP3 and IL-17A and between FOXP3 and CD8. Considering only the cases of lymphocytic T-cell lymphoma, there was a significant difference in survival time (p <0.0001) and CD8 expression (p &#61; 0.015) considering partial (n &#61; 12) versus complete remission (n &#61; 27). In survival analysis, treatment A (L-asparaginase, chlorambucil and prednisolone), as well as serum albumin levels equal or higher than 2.5g/dL and weight gain after 30 days of treatment were predictive of increased survival time. As conclusion, lymphocytic T-cell lymphoma was more prevalent in feline species, mainly involving the small intestine and with a median survival of 24 months. Ki-67 expression was better marker to determine cell proliferation than mitotic index. FOXP3 expression was low and did not correlate to therapeutic response and survival time in GI lymphoma. In the specific analysis of lymphocytic T-cell lymphoma, there was no correlation between FOXP3/IL-17A and FOXP3/CD8, while low CD8 expression was correlated with increased survival in patients in complete remission

As células dendríticas (DCs) são as principais células apresentadoras de antígeno do sistema imune, e há evidências da participação na tolerância imunológica. Neste estudo avaliamos as alterações ocorridas na população de células CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ após co-cultura de células de linfonodo com BMDCs, na presença de timócitos alogênicos ou singênicos em apoptose. Após cultura na presença de células alogênicas a população de Tregs mostra-se aumentada, e essa expansão é dependente de contato entre a DC e o linfócito T, já que o isolamento das culturas diminuiu a expressão destes marcadores. A internalização de células em apoptose foi induziu caráter tolerogênico nas DCs com baixa expressão de moléculas co-estimuladoras e resistência à maturação por LPS. As células CD4+CD25+ geradas in vitro foram capazes de conter a proliferação de esplenócitos de camundongos BALB/c estimulados por esplenócitos de C57BL/6 irradiados, anti-CD3 e OVA. No ensaio in vivo, as Tregs geradas in vitro também foram capazes de suprimir a proliferação de células CD25- quando transferidas para animais Nude, impedindo também o infiltrado inflamatório no estômago, cólon, fígado e rins, sendo assim capazes de suprimir a resposta imune in vitro e in vivo. / The dendritic cell (DC) plays a very important role in antigen presentation in the immune system and recent articles have shown the involvement in maintaining peripheral tolerance. Here we evaluated the changes in the CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ after co culture of DCs with lymph node cells. BMDCs were pulsed with apoptotic cells and co-cultured with lymph-node cells. Our results show an increase of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells after co-culture with DCs pulsed with apoptotic cells. Furthermore, the DCs did not change the pattern of co-stimulatory molecules expression due to phagocytosis of syngeneic or allogeneic apoptotic cells and further stimulation with LPS. The CD4+CD25+ cells sorted from the in vitro culture were able to suppress the proliferation of splenocytes in vitro in a specific and non-specific manner. As expected, the co-transfer of CD4+CD25- and CD4+CD25+, both sorted from the in vitro culture, was able to control the cell infiltrates in the target organs and the total cell count in the lymph-nodes. Thus, the Tregs expanded in vitro are able to suppress the immune response in vitro and in vivo assays.

O veneno da subespécie de cascavel Crotalus durissus terrificus (C.d.terrificus) altera a coagulação, tem ação neurotóxica, miotóxica e efeito imunossupressivo. O veneno de C.d.terrificus e a sua fração majoritária, crotoxina (CTX), inibem a resposta celular e humoral, sendo esse efeito independente da indução de morte celular. O objetivo foi investigar os mecanismos envolvidos na imunossupressão exercida pela CTX. A CTX induz a produção de IL-10, TGF-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#946 e prostaglandina E2 (PGE2) pelas células dos camundongos que a receberam. Menor secreção de IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#947 e IL-12 foi observada nas culturas de células de camundongos imunizados e que receberam CTX. A CTX aumenta a expressão da enzima indoleamina 2,3 dioxigenase e a geração de células T reguladoras em camundongos imunizados com OVA e que receberam CTX. A CTX foi capaz de inibir a expressão de CD40, CD80, CD86 e de MHC de classe II em células de camundongos imunizados e nas células dendríticas (DCs) purificadas destes animais. Em culturas de DCs, a CTX induz alta secreção de IL-10, TGF-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#946 e PGE2 e menor de IL-12. / The venom of the rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus (C.d.terrificus) changes the coagulation system and presents neurotoxic, myotoxic and immunosuppressive effect. The venom and its main fraction, crotoxin (CTX) inhibited both the cellular and humoral response. This effect is not due to induction of cell death. The objective was to investigate the immunosuppressive mechanisms of CTX. CTX induces production of IL-10, TGF-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#946 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by cells of mice that received it. Lower secretion of IFN-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#947 and IL-12 was observed in the cultured cells from mice immunized that received CTX. CTX promotes increased expression of the enzyme indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase and generation of regulatory T cells in mice immunized with OVA and receiving the toxin. CTX was able to inhibit the expression of CD40, CD80, CD86 and MHC II in mice immunized and in dendritic cells (DCs) purified from these animals. In cultures of DCs, CTX increased secretion of IL-10, TGF-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#946 and PGE 2 and lower IL-12.

Les facteurs de transcription Eos et Helios ont été décrits comme étant des modulateurs des fonctions des cellules T régulatrices (Treg). Nos résultats suggèrent qu’Eos et Helios ne sont pas nécessaires, ni pour la différenciation, ni pour les principales fonctions des cellules Treg CD4+. Cependant, les cellules Helios-/- présentent une meilleure activité suppressive et à un profil transcriptomique de cellules Treg activées. Pour tester si Eos et Helios coopèrent pour réguler les fonctions des cellules Treg, nous avons analysé les souris doubles mutantes. Nos découvertes indiquent que la perte combinée d’Eos et d’Helios n’a pas d’effet sur la biologie des cellules Treg. De plus, nous avons montré qu’Eos et Helios sont induits dans les cellules Treg CD8+. Néanmoins, seule la perte d’Helios ou celle combinée d’Eos et d’Helios affectent leur différenciation. Tous ces résultats suggèrent donc qu’Eos et Helios ne sont pas requis pour réguler les fonctions essentielles des cellules Treg. / The transcription factors Eos and Helios have been described as modulators of regulatory T cell (Treg) functions. Our results suggest that they are not necessary for the differentiation and essential functions of CD4+ Treg cells. However, Helios-/- cells present a superior suppressive activity and a transcriptional profile of activated Treg cells. To test if Eos and Helios can cooperate to regulate Treg cell functions, we then analyzed double null mice. Our findings indicate that loss of both Eos and Helios has no effect on Treg cell biology during homeostasis. In addition, we showed that Eos and Helios are induced in CD8+ Treg cells. However, only loss of Helios, or both Helios and Eos, affect their differentiation. Altogether, these results suggest that Eos and Helios are not required regulate essential CD4+ Treg cell functions, but the absence of Helios may have an impact on their level of activation. Finally, Helios and Eos may play role of in the CD8+ Treg cell compartment.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is etiologically considered as an autoimmune disease, where insulin-producing β-cells are damaged by autoimmune attacks. Regulatory T (Treg) cells are immune homeostasis cells. In the present thesis I aimed to investigate the role of Treg cells and other immune cells in the early development of T1D. In order to do that, we first determined which immune cells that are altered at an early stage of the T1D development. We found that dendritic cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells induce the initial immune response. Next, we investigated the role of Treg cells in multiple low dose streptozotocin (MLDSTZ) induced T1D and in NOD mice. We found that the numbers of Treg cells were increased in both MLDSTZ and NOD mice when the MLDSTZ mice were hyperglycemic. However, the increased Treg cells showed a decreased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, IL-35 and TGF-β) and an increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ and IL-17a). These results revealed that Treg cells switch their phenotype under T1D conditions. IL-35 administration effectively prevented the development of, and reversed established MLDSTZ induced T1D. Treg cells from IL-35 treated mice showed an increased expression of the Eos transcription factor, accompanied by an increased expression of IL-35 and a decreased expression of IFN-γ and IL-17a. These data indicate that IL-35 administration counteracted the early development of T1D by maintaining the phenotype of the Treg cells. Furthermore, IL-35 administration reversed established T1D in the NOD mouse model by maintaining the phenotype of Treg cells, seemingly by inducing the expression of Eos. Moreover, the circulating level of IL-35 was significantly lowered in both new onset and long-standing T1D patients compared to healthy controls. In addition, patients with T1D with remaining C-peptide had significantly higher levels of IL-35 than patients lacking C-peptide, suggesting that IL-35 might prevent the loss of β-cell mass. In line with this hypothesis, we found that LADA patients had a higher proportion of IL-35+ tolerogenic antigen presenting cells than T1D patients. Subsequently, we determined the proportions of IL-35+ Treg cells and IL-17a+ Treg cells in T1D patients with diabetic nephropathy (DN), which were age, sex and BMI matched with healthy controls and T1D patients. The proportion of IL-35+ Treg cells was decreased in DN and T1D patients, but IL-17a+ Treg cells were more abundant than in healthy controls. Furthermore, we found that the number of Foxp3+ Treg cells was increased in the kidneys of MLDSTZ mice. However, infiltration of mononuclear cells was seen in kidneys of these mice. In addition, kidney tissues of IL-35 treated MLDSTZ mice did not show any mononuclear cell infiltration. These results demonstrate that IL-35 may be used to prevent mononuclear cell infiltration in kidney diseases. Our findings indicate that the numbers of Foxp3+ Treg cells are increased in T1D, but that these Treg cells fail to counteract the ongoing immune assault in islets and kidneys of hyperglycemic mice. This could be explained by a phenotypic shift of the Treg cells under hyperglycemic conditions. IL-35 administration reversed established T1D in two different animal models of T1D and prevented mononuclear cell infiltration in the kidneys by maintaining the phenotype of Treg cells.

Les lymphocytes T régulateurs (Treg) sont des cellules capables de moduler la réponse immunitaire allogénique dans les deux sens. En effet, il a d'abord été démontré dans des modèles expérimentaux de maladie du greffon contre l'hôte (GVHD) chez la souris que l’élimination des Treg pouvait accentuer la GVHD, alors qu’une thérapie cellulaire à base de Treg peut la contrôler. Ces modèles pré-cliniques ont conduit au développement d'essais cliniques de thérapie cellulaire avec des résultats très prometteurs dans l’allogreffe de cellules souches hématopoïétiques (alloHSCT). Cependant, les procédures d’élimination des Treg ainsi que leur production restent difficiles à développer en grade clinique limitant ainsi leur utilisation. Il est donc essentiel d'avoir une meilleure compréhension des facteurs impliqués in-vivo dans l’effet des Treg au cours de l’alloHSCT afin de développer des approches thérapeutiques alternatives.Plusieurs études ont montré qu'en l'absence de cellules T effectrices, l’effet suppresseur des Treg est altéré. Etant donné que le TNFαest une cytokine centrale abondamment produite par les cellules T au cours de la GVHD, nous avons testé si dans ce contexte les Treg étaient également dépendent d’une signalisation via le TNFα. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons utilisé trois approches expérimentales différentes bloquant l’interaction TNF/TNFR2 dans notre modèle de GVHD expérimentale. Nous révélons pour la première fois une dépendance complète au TNFα des Treg en termes de capacités suppressives in-vivo. Nous montrons également que la seule inhibition de la production de TNFα par les cellules T du donneur est suffisante pour abolir complètement l'effet suppresseur des Treg. Nous pensons que nos résultats ouvrent la voie vers le développement d’une nouvelle approche thérapeutique ciblant les points de contrôle de la réponse immunitaires afin de moduler l’alloréactivité après alloHSCT. En effet, l'inhibition de la voie TNF/TNFR2 pourrait potentialiser l'effet GVL des lymphocytes T du donneur en bloquant l'effet des Treg. Inversement, l’alloréactivité pourrait être fortement réduite ce qui aboutirait au contrôle de la GVHD par l’utilisation d’une molécule agoniste du TNFR2 qui permettrait d’augmenter les Treg ex-vivo. / Regulatory Tcells (Treg) are key target cells to modulate in both ways the allogeneic immune response. Indeed, it was initially demonstrated in experimental mouse models of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) that Tregs depletion could intensify the disorder whereas cell therapy using Tregs allowed to efficiently prevent experimental aGVHD. These pre-clinical models led to the development of clinical trials of Treg-based cell therapy with already very promising results in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT). However, the procedures of ex-vivo Tregs depletion as well as Tregs production remain difficult to develop at clinical grade thus limiting their dissemination. It is therefore critical to have a better understanding of factors involved in-vivo in these Treg-dependent effects in alloHSCT to develop alternative therapeutic approaches.Previous studies showed that in the absence of effector Tcells, suppressive effect of Tregs was significantly altered. Since TNFα is a central cytokine abundantly produced by Tcells during aGVHD, we tested whether in the context of alloHSCT the Tregs effect also depends on TNFα signaling. To test this hypothesis, we used three different experimental approaches to prevent TNF/TNFR2 interaction in our model of experimental aGVHD. We revealed for the first time a complete TNFα dependency for Tregs in terms of suppressive capacity in-vivo. We also showed that the sole inhibition of TNFα production by donor Tcells was sufficient to completely abolish the Tregs suppressive effect. We believe that our results pave the way for a novel immune checkpoint therapy to modulate alloreactivity after alloHSCT. Indeed, TNFα inhibition could potentiate the GVL effect of donor lymphocyte by blocking Treg effect. On the other hand, the alloreactivity could be strongly reduced to control GVHD by using TNFR2 agonist molecules in order to expand Tregs ex-vivo.

Ma thèse a pour but d'étudier l'impact des molécules immunosuppressives TGFβ et VEGF exprimées par les cellules tumorales dans la tolérance mise en place contre les tumeurs par les lymphocytes T régulateurs (Tregs). Pour cela, j'ai utilisé des lignées tumorales murines de mélanome B16 invalidées pour l'expression de TGFβ ou de VEGF par shRNA. J'ai pu observer que les invalidations induisent de profondes modifications de la réponse immunitaire contre les tumeurs, qui se traduisent par une forte diminution de son bras régulateur et une forte augmentation de son bras effecteur. Ces modifications sont le fait d'évènements très précoces et différents entre le VEGF et le TGFβ. Le ciblage simultané de TGFβ et de VEGF induit alors un rejet spontané des tumeurs chez 40% des animaux inoculés, et leur ciblage additionnel dans la stratégie thérapeutique utilisant les anticorps anti-PD-1 et anti-CTLA-4 induit un effet additif important. Nos résultats montrent donc que le VEGF et le TGFβ exprimés par les tumeurs sont des facteurs importants pour la tolérance immunitaire aux tumeurs et particulièrement pour la mobilisation des Tregs, et qu'il y a un fort rationnel à chercher à combiner leur ciblage avec les différentes stratégies thérapeutiques anti-tumorales existantes. / My thesis aims at studying the impact tumor-derived immunosuppressive molecules TGFβ and VEGF on the dominant tolerance establishment by regulatory T cells (Tregs). For this I used murine B16 melanoma tumor cell lines knocked-down by shRNA for the expression of TGFβ or VEGF. I observed that these silencings induce dramatic changes in the immune response against tumors, which result in a large decrease of its regulatory arm and a strong increase of its effector arm. These changes result from very early mechanisms that differ between VEGF and TGFβ silencings. Accordingly, simultaneous targeting of TGFβ and VEGF induces significant tumor rejection, and their additional targeting in the anti-PD-1 / anti-CTLA-4 therapeutic strategy brings obvious additive effect. Globally, our results show that tumor-derived VEGF and TGFβ are important factors for the mobilization of Tregs and more generally for immune tolerance to tumors, and that there is a strong rational to combine their targeting with the different existing anti-tumor therapies.

La MA est caractérisée par une altération progressive des fonctions cognitives, et définie par les "dégénérescences neurofibrillaires", les "plaques séniles" et une neuroinflammation impliquant les cellules microgliales. L’immunothérapie constitue une approche thérapeutique prometteuse dans la MA. Un premier essai clinique de vaccination anti-Aβ a été arrêté après la survenue de 6% de cas de méningoencéphalites imputés à l’activation de réponses T anti-Aβ pro-inflammatoires. Cependant, des études récentes suggèrent un effet bénéfique de certaines populations de cellules T CD4+ anti-Aβ. L'ensemble de ces données suggère des rôles complexes de différentes réponses lymphocytaires T au cours de la MA, et soulignent la nécessité de mieux comprendre leur implication dans la maladie et les mécanismes de leur régulation. L’objectif de ce travail a été d’étudier l’impact des Tregs sur la progression de la maladie dans un modèle murin APPPS1. Les résultats montrent que la déplétion transitoire des Tregs accélère l’apparition des troubles cognitifs, sans altérer la pathologie amyloïde. Ces observations sont corrélées avec une réduction du recrutement des cellules microgliales autour des plaques Aβ et une altération du profil d’expression, dans le cerveau des souris, de certains gènes impliqués dans la maladie. A l’inverse, l’amplification sélective des réponses Tregs entraine une augmentation du recrutement des cellules microgliales autour des plaques et une amélioration des fonctions cognitives. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère un rôle bénéfique des Tregs au cours de la maladie d’Alzheimer et encourage le développement d’approches d’immunothérapie basées sur leur modulation. / Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of memory and cognitive functions. Accumulation of Aβ peptide is considered the initiating cause of pathogenic lesions, and immunotherapy strategies targeting Aβ represent promising therapeutic approaches. Vaccination against Aβ provided encouraging results in experimental mouse models and, to a lesser extent, in a subsequent clinical trial (AN1792). Although the AN1792 trial had to be interrupted due to meningoencephalitis attributed to pro-inflammatory T cell responses in 6% of the patients, preclinical murine models did not show evidence of T cell-related side effects. In addition, several reports suggest that Aβ-specific CD4+ T cells may be implicated in the natural course of AD and could have a strong therapeutic potential as well, pointing out the need for better understanding the role and regulation of T cell responses to Aβ. We previously showed that regulatory T cells (Tregs) control Aβ-specific CD4+ T cell responses in physiological and pathological settings upon vaccination. The aim of this work was to analyze the impact of Tregs on the natural course of the disease progression in a mouse model of AD. Early transient depletion of Tregs accelerated the onset of cognitive deficits in APPPS1 mice. This result was correlated with less recruitment of microglia towards amyloid deposits and altered disease-related gene expression profile. Conversely, Tregs selectively amplifying resulted in higher numbers of plaque-associated microglia and improved cognitive functions in APPPS1 mice. These data suggest a beneficial role of Tregs in the pathophysiology of AD by modulating microglial response. Our study highlithts the therapeutic potential of Treg-based immunotherapies in AD.

Les myopathies inflammatoires sont des maladies acquises caractérisées par un déficit moteur impliquant une atteinte musculaire auto-immune. Elles sont responsables d'un handicap invalidant et peuvent s'accompagner de complications engageant le pronostic vital. Les traitements, quand ils existent, reposent sur l'utilisation de corticoïdes à fortes doses et au long cours. Cependant, 60% des patients rechutent et 20 à 30 % sont d'emblée corticorésistants. D'autres traitements immunosuppresseurs sont alors nécessaires. Les effets secondaires de ces traitements sont inévitables et parfois sévères. Afin de tester des nouvelles approches, le laboratoire a développé un modèle de Myosite Auto-immune Expérimentale dont les caractéristiques sont similaires à celles de la polymyosite. Dans ce modèle nous avons testé l'effet d'une sous population lymphocytaire T, appelée les lymphocytes T régulateurs, joue un rôle déterminant dans la tolérance périphérique aux antigènes du soi. Afin de contrôler les manifestations auto-immunes, nous avons cherché à les amplifier les Tregs in vivo, pharmacologiquement. D'abord, nous avons observé l'effet bénéfique de la rapamycine sur la sévérité de notre modèle en permettant en particulier d'augmenter le pourcentage de Tregs. Dans un second temps, nous avons montré le rôle bénéfique des immunoglobulines en intraveineux dans ce même modèle en traitement curatif. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'effet de l'arsenic trioxyde (Trisenox) dans ce modèle animal.Ainsi, l'ensemble ces données permettent de mieux comprendre la physiopathologie des myosites et de mettre au point un essai clinique avec la rapamycine. / Inflammatory myopathies are acquired diseases characterized by motor deficit involving an autoimmune myopathy.They are responsible for impairing disability and may be associated with life-threatening complications.Treatment, when they exist, based on the use of corticosteroids in high doses and for long periods.However, 60 % of patients relapse and 20-30 % are readily corticosteroid.Other immunosuppressive treatments are then required (methotrexate , azathioprime , cyclosporine).The side effects of these treatments are inevitable and sometimes severe, which is why the development of new approaches treatment is essential. To test these new approaches, the laboratory developed a mouse model of Experimental Autoimmune Myositis with same Clinical and histological characteristics to polymyositis.In this model we tested the effect of a sub-population of T lymphocyte, nammed regulatory T cells, plays a crucial role in peripheral tolerance self-antigens. In order to control autoimmune manifestations that can replicate the mechanisms of action of Tregs , we sought to amplify in vivo, pharmacologically.At first, we observed the beneficial effect of rapamycin on our model, notably with increase of Tregs.In a second step, we have shown the beneficial role IVIg in the same model in curative.Finally, we investigated the effect of arsenic trioxide ( Trisenox ) in this animal model.Thus, all these data provide insight into the pathophysiology of myositis and to develop a clinical trial with rapamycin .