Balanites maughamii is an ecologically and culturally valuable tree species, heavily impacted by elephants, which strip bark selectively off the largest trees, increasing their susceptibility to fire damage. Elephants also break intermediate sized trees extensively, keeping them trapped in non-reproductive stages. The trees can however survive breaking, stripping and · toppling by elephants, as well as top kill by fires, because they resprout vigorously in response to damage. They also produce root suckers. independently of disturbance. Vegetative reproduction buffers the populations from the infrequent recruitment of seedlings, and facilitates the maintenance of populations over the short term. Balanites maughamii trees are reliant on African elephants (Loxodonta africana) for seed dispersal and to provide a germination cue through mastication. In the absence of elephants, the population experiences a recruitment bottleneck, but root suckers functionally replace seedlings and fill the "recruitment gap", so over the short term, the population is resilient. In all populations, whether elephants are present or not, another hurdle affects recruitment, and it is seed limitation due to seed predation pre- and post- dispersal. Cafeteria experiments revealed that bushveld gerbils (Tatera leucogaster) were removing many seeds but do not scatter- or larder-hoard. They are simply seed predators.

As espécies do gênero Smilax L., conhecidas popularmente como salsaparrilha, são empregadas na medicina popular desde o século XVI, porém essas plantas ainda são exploradas de maneira extrativista. Com o aumento da comercialização de plantas medicinais cresce a necessidade de trabalhos que certifiquem a qualidade da matéria prima. A caracterização anatômica e o perfil químico certamente fornecem uma base mais segura nessa certificação. Visando auxiliar no atendimento da demanda e apontar propostas do manejo sustentável em áreas de ocorrência natural de Smilax fluminensis Steud. os objetivos do presente estudo foram: a) analisar a morfoanatomia dos órgãos vegetativos e indicar as características de valor diagnóstico para essa espécie; b) analisar o perfil químico de S. fluminensis através da Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência acoplada com Detector de Arranjo de Diodos utilizando-se extratos metanólicos (EMeOH) de raízes, rizóforos e ramos aéreos; c) realizar estudos de germinação de sementes e de propagação vegetativa por estacas de ramos aéreos e subterrâneos e, d) acompanhar ao longo de um ano a capacidade de rebrotamento das plantas no campo. As análises ao microscópio de luz foram realizadas utilizando-se as técnicas usuais para o preparo de lâminas semipermamentes e permanentes. Para as análises no microscópio eletrônico de varredura, amostras de folhas foram fixadas em Karnovsky, desidratadas em série etílica e submetidas ao método do ponto crítico de CO2, montadas sobre suportes de alumínio e metalizadas. As sementes foram submetidas a diferentes temperaturas, sob fotoperíodo diário de oito horas e na ausência de luz. Para o enraizamento de estacas, foram utilizados ramos aéreos e subterrâneos com aproximadamente 20 cm, com duas regiões nodais submetidas ao tratamento com ácido indolbutírico a 100 ppm ou apenas em água destilada. Dentre os caracteres anatômicos que permitiram a delimitação da espécie destacam-se: estômatos anisocíticos e paracíticos presentes na epiderme da face abaxial; cera epicuticular na forma de grânulos globosos; mesofilo homogêneo com ampla câmara subestomática; presença da bainha amilífera nos primeiros entrenós do caule aéreo; presença de endoderme com reforço em U; ausência de meristema de espessamento no rizóforo adulto; presença de exoderme com estrias de Caspary nas raízes brancas e ausência de córtex interno nas raízes marrons. Em relação ao perfil químico, os extratos obtidos apresentaram picos correspondentes às substâncias: ácido clorogênico, ácido cafeico, rutina, ácido p-cumárico, ácido ferúlico e ácido trans-cinâmico. As melhores porcentagens de germinação foram 80% em 20-30º C no claro e 85% a 30ºC no escuro. Apenas as estacas de ramos subterrâneos enraizaram. Ao final de um ano de acompanhamento das plantas no campo, todas apresentaram em média 4.05 novos brotamentos. As espécies cujas partes utilizadas para o preparo dos medicamentos são as raízes correm maior risco de extinção como é o caso de S. fluminensis. Portanto, a capacidade de propagação por sementes, por estacas e de regeneração de ramos aéreos após a remoção de parte das estruturas subterrâneas aliada ao perfil químico confirma o seu potencial para a exploração econômica de maneira sustentável, sendo uma alternativa para reduzir o extrativismo predatório dessa espécie nativa. / The Smilax L. species, popularly known as salsaparrilha, have been used in folk medicine since the sixteenth century; however, these plants have still been handled in extractive way. With the increasing commercialization of medicinal plants, there is need to study to certify the raw material quality. Anatomical analyses and chemical profile characterization certainly provides a more secure basis to this certification. Aiming to meet the demand and to point proposals for sustainable management of natural occurrence of Smilax fluminensis Steud., the objectives of this study were: a) to analyze the morph-anatomy of vegetative organs and indicate the features of diagnostic value for this species, b) to examine the chemical profile of S. fluminensis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Diode Array Detector using methanol extracts (EMeOH) of roots, rhizophore and stems c) to conduct studies of seed germination and vegetative propagation on cuttings of aerial and subterranean stems and d) to monitor, over a year, the resprouting ability of plants in the field. We carried out the analyses under a light microscopy using the usual techniques for preparing semi-permanent and permanent slides. To perform the analyses under a scanning electron microscopy, leaf samples were fixed in Karnovsky, dehydrated in ethanol series and subjected to critical point method of CO2, mounted on aluminum supports and coated with gold. Seeds were exposed to different temperatures under a daily photoperiod of eight hours and in the absence of light. To analyze the sprouting, aerial and subterranean stems were used with about 20 cm of length, with two nodal regions subjected to treatment with IBA at 100 ppm or in distilled water. Among the anatomical features that enable delimitation of the species are: anisocytic and paracytic stomata in the epidermis of the abaxial surface, epicuticular wax in the form of granules globules, homogeneous mesophyll with large substomatal chambers, presence of starch sheath in the first internodes of the aerial stem, the presence of endoderm-reinforced U and the absence of primary thickening meristem in the adult rhizophore, exodermis with Casparian strips in roots, and the absence of inner cortex in brown roots. Regarding the chemical profile, extracts showed peaks corresponding to the following substances: chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and trans-Cinnamic acid. The best germination was 80% at 20-30ºC under light and 85% at 30ºC in the dark. Only roots sprouted. After one year of monitoring the plants in the field, all had an average of 4.05 new aerial shoots. The species whose roots are used for the preparation of medicines face a greater risk of extinction as is the case of S. fluminensis. Therefore, the ability to spread by seeds, cuttings and shoots regeneration after removal of aerial stems combined with the chemical profile confirms its potential for economic use in a sustainable manner, and an alternative to reduce the predatory extraction of native species.

A área de Cerrado escolhida para o estudo está em regeneração na Estação Ecológica de Santa Bárbara, localizada no município de Águas de Santa Bárbara, SP. Nesta área o Pinus, que estava sob cultivo desde os anos 70, foi retirado em 2012 e, em 2014, foi realizada uma queimada. As espécies Eugenia dysenterica (Mart.) DC. e E. punicifolia (Kunth) DC. foram escolhidas devido ao elevado número de indivíduos que rebrotaram na área. O objetivo geral do projeto foi conduzir análises morfoanatômicas e químicas das estruturas relacionadas ao potencial de rebrotamento. Foram realizadas: a contagem das gemas subterrâneas nos primeiros 10 centímetros abaixo do nível do solo, as análises químicas das raízes e análises anatômicas na região terminal de ramos aéreos e no sistema subterrâneo. Nas duas espécies, além da gema apical dos ramos aéreos, nas três regiões nodais subsequentes, acima da gema axilar ocorre uma gema acessória. Em todas as gemas, observam-se estruturas de proteção, pois junto ao meristema apical caulinar (MAC) ocorrem coléteres e cristais. Além disso, o MAC é protegido por primórdios foliares com cavidades de óleo, muitos cristais e tricomas unicelulares não glandulares que possuem espessamento parietal em celulose e podem acumular compostos fenólicos. Nos sistemas subterrâneos, o número de gemas, localizadas preferencialmente nos primeiros cinco centímetros do solo, variou entre os três indivíduos da mesma espécie: E. dysenterica 162, 17 e 253, E. punicifolia 24, 40 e 109. Esta variação deveu-se ao grau de desenvolvimento das estruturas subterrâneas as quais certamente formaram-se antes do período da retirada do Pinus. O sistema subterrâneo das espécies é formado por um eixo lenhoso cuja porção superior é caulinar e emite vários ramos aéreos enquanto a porção inferior é constituída por uma raiz axial espessada que pode atingir até um metro de profundidade em E. dysenterica. Em E. punicifolia o sistema subterrâneo ocupa uma região mais superficial do solo e, assim como o caule, as raízes axial e adventícias são distribuídas num plano mais horizontal. O tecido de revestimento nas raízes de E. punicifolia e no caule e raízes de E. dysenterica, apresenta camadas alternadas de células de paredes suberizadas e de células com espessamentos parietais em pectina; no caule de E. punicifolia há esclereides que se alternam com as células suberizadas. Em E. punicifolia o espessamento resulta de divisões anticlinais e expansão tangencial das células do parênquima floemático. Há floema interno e parênquima medular nos caules subterrâneos de ambas as espécies. Compostos fenólicos e grãos de amido estão presentes nas células parenquimáticas de regiões mais espessadas dos caules e raízes. Os teores de carboidratos totais, hemicelulose, celulose e lignina não diferem significativamente nas duas espécies. No entanto, as concentrações de flavonoides totais e de compostos fenólicos totais foram superiores nas raízes de E. punicifolia. O grau de proteção das gemas aéreas, o elevado número de gemas e o acúmulo de compostos de reserva (amido) e de proteção (fenóis, flavonoides, lignina) nas estruturas subterrâneas podem ter favorecido o seu rebrotamento após a retirada do Pinus e a sua permanência das espécies na área. / The Cerrado area studied is under regeneration at the Estação Ecológica de Santa Bárbara, located in Águas de Santa Bárbara (São Paulo, Brazil). In this area, the Pinus, cultivated since the 1970s, was removed in 2012 and then, in 2014, the area was burnt. The species Eugenia dysenterica (Mart.) DC. and E. punicifolia (Kunth) DC. were studied due to their high resprouting after the burnt event. The aim was to carry out morphoanatomical and chemical analyses of the structures related to the resprouting capacity. The number of belowground buds was counted in the first 10 cm below the soil surface. The chemical analyses of the roots and anatomical analyses of the end portion of the aerial branches and the underground system were performed. Besides the apical bud, both species showed an accessory bud above the axillary one at the three subsequent nodal regions. In all studied buds, protection structures were observed, as colleters and crystals occur close to the shoot apical meristem (SAM). Moreover, SAM is protected by leaf primordia with oil cavities, many crystals and non-glandular unicellular trichomes. These trichomes present parietal cellulose thickening and are able to accumulate phenolic compounds. In underground systems, the number of buds, mostly in the first five centimeters below the soil surface, varied between individuals per species: E. dysenterica 162, 17 and 253; E. punicifolia 24, 40 and 109. This variation was caused by the development degree of the underground system, whose structures were certainly developed before Pinus removal. The underground system of the species display a woody axis, whose upper portion is a stem structure and produces several aerial branches. Its lower part is formed by an axial thickened root that can reach one metre deep in E. dysenterica. In E. punicifolia, the subterranean system occupies a more superficial region of the soil and, similar to the stem, the axial and adventitious roots are distributed in a more horizontal plane. The covering tissue of underground systems in E. punicifolia and E. dysenterica displays alternate layers of cells with suberized walls and pectin-thickened walls. In E. punicifolia stem, the covering tissue exhibits sclereids alternate with cells of suberized walls. The thickening in E. punicifolia is a result of anticlinal divisions and tangential expansion of phloematic parenchyma cells. Both species show internal phloem and medullary parenchyma in underground stems. Phenolic compounds and starch grains are present in parenchyma cells of thickened regions in stems and roots. The contents of total carbohydrates, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin do not differ significantly in the two species. However, concentrations of total flavonoids and total phenolic compounds are higher in roots of E. punicifolia. The protection level of aerial buds, large number of underground buds, and accumulation of storage (starch) and protection (phenols, flavonoids, lignin) compounds in the underground structures may have favoured resprouting of the species after Pinus removal and their maintenance in the area.

A área de Cerrado escolhida para o estudo está em regeneração na Estação Ecológica de Santa Bárbara, localizada no município de Águas de Santa Bárbara, SP. Nesta área o Pinus, que estava sob cultivo desde os anos 70, foi retirado em 2012 e, em 2014, foi realizada uma queimada. As espécies Eugenia dysenterica (Mart.) DC. e E. punicifolia (Kunth) DC. foram escolhidas devido ao elevado número de indivíduos que rebrotaram na área. O objetivo geral do projeto foi conduzir análises morfoanatômicas e químicas das estruturas relacionadas ao potencial de rebrotamento. Foram realizadas: a contagem das gemas subterrâneas nos primeiros 10 centímetros abaixo do nível do solo, as análises químicas das raízes e análises anatômicas na região terminal de ramos aéreos e no sistema subterrâneo. Nas duas espécies, além da gema apical dos ramos aéreos, nas três regiões nodais subsequentes, acima da gema axilar ocorre uma gema acessória. Em todas as gemas, observam-se estruturas de proteção, pois junto ao meristema apical caulinar (MAC) ocorrem coléteres e cristais. Além disso, o MAC é protegido por primórdios foliares com cavidades de óleo, muitos cristais e tricomas unicelulares não glandulares que possuem espessamento parietal em celulose e podem acumular compostos fenólicos. Nos sistemas subterrâneos, o número de gemas, localizadas preferencialmente nos primeiros cinco centímetros do solo, variou entre os três indivíduos da mesma espécie: E. dysenterica 162, 17 e 253, E. punicifolia 24, 40 e 109. Esta variação deveu-se ao grau de desenvolvimento das estruturas subterrâneas as quais certamente formaram-se antes do período da retirada do Pinus. O sistema subterrâneo das espécies é formado por um eixo lenhoso cuja porção superior é caulinar e emite vários ramos aéreos enquanto a porção inferior é constituída por uma raiz axial espessada que pode atingir até um metro de profundidade em E. dysenterica. Em E. punicifolia o sistema subterrâneo ocupa uma região mais superficial do solo e, assim como o caule, as raízes axial e adventícias são distribuídas num plano mais horizontal. O tecido de revestimento nas raízes de E. punicifolia e no caule e raízes de E. dysenterica, apresenta camadas alternadas de células de paredes suberizadas e de células com espessamentos parietais em pectina; no caule de E. punicifolia há esclereides que se alternam com as células suberizadas. Em E. punicifolia o espessamento resulta de divisões anticlinais e expansão tangencial das células do parênquima floemático. Há floema interno e parênquima medular nos caules subterrâneos de ambas as espécies. Compostos fenólicos e grãos de amido estão presentes nas células parenquimáticas de regiões mais espessadas dos caules e raízes. Os teores de carboidratos totais, hemicelulose, celulose e lignina não diferem significativamente nas duas espécies. No entanto, as concentrações de flavonoides totais e de compostos fenólicos totais foram superiores nas raízes de E. punicifolia. O grau de proteção das gemas aéreas, o elevado número de gemas e o acúmulo de compostos de reserva (amido) e de proteção (fenóis, flavonoides, lignina) nas estruturas subterrâneas podem ter favorecido o seu rebrotamento após a retirada do Pinus e a sua permanência das espécies na área. / The Cerrado area studied is under regeneration at the Estação Ecológica de Santa Bárbara, located in Águas de Santa Bárbara (São Paulo, Brazil). In this area, the Pinus, cultivated since the 1970s, was removed in 2012 and then, in 2014, the area was burnt. The species Eugenia dysenterica (Mart.) DC. and E. punicifolia (Kunth) DC. were studied due to their high resprouting after the burnt event. The aim was to carry out morphoanatomical and chemical analyses of the structures related to the resprouting capacity. The number of belowground buds was counted in the first 10 cm below the soil surface. The chemical analyses of the roots and anatomical analyses of the end portion of the aerial branches and the underground system were performed. Besides the apical bud, both species showed an accessory bud above the axillary one at the three subsequent nodal regions. In all studied buds, protection structures were observed, as colleters and crystals occur close to the shoot apical meristem (SAM). Moreover, SAM is protected by leaf primordia with oil cavities, many crystals and non-glandular unicellular trichomes. These trichomes present parietal cellulose thickening and are able to accumulate phenolic compounds. In underground systems, the number of buds, mostly in the first five centimeters below the soil surface, varied between individuals per species: E. dysenterica 162, 17 and 253; E. punicifolia 24, 40 and 109. This variation was caused by the development degree of the underground system, whose structures were certainly developed before Pinus removal. The underground system of the species display a woody axis, whose upper portion is a stem structure and produces several aerial branches. Its lower part is formed by an axial thickened root that can reach one metre deep in E. dysenterica. In E. punicifolia, the subterranean system occupies a more superficial region of the soil and, similar to the stem, the axial and adventitious roots are distributed in a more horizontal plane. The covering tissue of underground systems in E. punicifolia and E. dysenterica displays alternate layers of cells with suberized walls and pectin-thickened walls. In E. punicifolia stem, the covering tissue exhibits sclereids alternate with cells of suberized walls. The thickening in E. punicifolia is a result of anticlinal divisions and tangential expansion of phloematic parenchyma cells. Both species show internal phloem and medullary parenchyma in underground stems. Phenolic compounds and starch grains are present in parenchyma cells of thickened regions in stems and roots. The contents of total carbohydrates, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin do not differ significantly in the two species. However, concentrations of total flavonoids and total phenolic compounds are higher in roots of E. punicifolia. The protection level of aerial buds, large number of underground buds, and accumulation of storage (starch) and protection (phenols, flavonoids, lignin) compounds in the underground structures may have favoured resprouting of the species after Pinus removal and their maintenance in the area.

Der Wiederaustrieb beernteter Pappeln in Kurzumtriebsplantagen erfolgt nicht selten stark verzögert. Ob und inwieweit hierbei der Große Rote Pappelblattkäfer eine Rolle spielt, wurde in einem Versuch mit zwei unterschiedlichen Dichten des Schadinsekts untersucht.

Orientador: Thomas Michael Lewinsohn / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-08T13:23:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Kersch_MonicaFrank_M.pdf: 2452214 bytes, checksum: c3201a6d5dd5894f58c044bbcbcd9051 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: Perturbações naturais ou antrópicas podem induzir mudanças fenotípicas nas plantas, que por sua vez podem influenciar herbívoros, predadores e polinizadores. Fatores abióticos, tais como nutrientes também podem influenciar a recuperação das plantas. Neste estudo investigamos o efeito de poda experimental em artrópodos associados a plantas rebrotadas em populações naturais de Chromolaena pungens (Asteraceae: Eupatoriae), uma planta subarbustiva, perene e nativa de cerrado. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar como o rebrote após corte raso ou poda parcial e o suprimento de nutrientes influenciam: (i) o crescimento vegetativo, (ii) a reprodução e os caracteres florais, (iii) a abundância de galhas, insetos folívoros, insetos sugadores e seus predadores; (iv) a comunidade de insetos endófagos associados e a incidência de seus parasitóides. O experimento seguiu um desenho de dois fatores em blocos, onde foram manipulados corte (controle, corte parcial e corte raso) e nutrientes (sem adição de nutrientes e com adição de nutrientes). Plantas cortadas na base foram menores, produziram menos folhas e capítulos, tiveram sua fenologia retardada em um mês em comparação com plantas controle ou de corte parcial. No entanto, a taxa de crescimento, a área foliar e o tamanho dos capítulos foram maiores em plantas submetidas a corte raso. Tais plantas sofreram maiores níveis de herbivoria foliar e destruição de sementes. Além disso, a abundância, a riqueza, a diversidade de espécies de endófagos associados a capítulos de plantas cortadas foram maiores do que em plantas controle ou parcialmente cortadas. Em conseqüência, a composição de espécies endófagas diferiu entre plantas submetidas a diferentes tipos de corte. Por isso, os resultados deste estudo são relevantes para o entendimento de interações inseto-planta em ambientes que sofrem perturbações naturais ou antrópicas recorrentes / Abstract: Natural or human-induced disturbances may promote plant phenotypic modifications, developmental and phenological changes which, in turn, may influence herbivores, predators and pollinators. Abiotic factors, especially nutrient availability, may also influence plant recovery. In this study, we evaluated plant regrowth and arthropod responses to experimental clipping plants in natural populations of Chromolaena pungens (Asteraceae: Eupatoriae), a perennial, native shrub in the Brazilian Cerrado. In particular, we assess how resprouting after severe or partial damage and nutrients influence: (i) vegetative regrowth; (ii) reproductive effort and floral traits; (iii) the abundance of galling, leaf-chewing and sap-sucking insects and their predaceous arthropods; (iv) endophagous insects and their parasitoids. The experiment followed a two-factor randomized block design, respectivelly clipping (control, partial clipping and basal clipping) and nutrients (no nutrient added and with nutrients added). Basally clipped plants were smaller, produced fewer leaves and flowerheads than partially clipped and control plants, moreover heir floral phenology was delayed by one month. However, the relative elongation rate, leaf area and flowerhead size were greater in basally clipped plants. These plants also suffered higher leaf herbivory and seed destruction. Moreover, the abundance, species richness and abundance of flowerhead endophages were higher in basally clipped plants than in the other treatments. Not surprisingly, species composition differed among clipping treatments. For this reason, these findings contribute to the knowledge of insect-plant interactions in recurringly disturbed habitats / Mestrado / Ecologia / Mestre em Ecologia

As espécies do gênero Smilax L., conhecidas popularmente como salsaparrilha, são empregadas na medicina popular desde o século XVI, porém essas plantas ainda são exploradas de maneira extrativista. Com o aumento da comercialização de plantas medicinais cresce a necessidade de trabalhos que certifiquem a qualidade da matéria prima. A caracterização anatômica e o perfil químico certamente fornecem uma base mais segura nessa certificação. Visando auxiliar no atendimento da demanda e apontar propostas do manejo sustentável em áreas de ocorrência natural de Smilax fluminensis Steud. os objetivos do presente estudo foram: a) analisar a morfoanatomia dos órgãos vegetativos e indicar as características de valor diagnóstico para essa espécie; b) analisar o perfil químico de S. fluminensis através da Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência acoplada com Detector de Arranjo de Diodos utilizando-se extratos metanólicos (EMeOH) de raízes, rizóforos e ramos aéreos; c) realizar estudos de germinação de sementes e de propagação vegetativa por estacas de ramos aéreos e subterrâneos e, d) acompanhar ao longo de um ano a capacidade de rebrotamento das plantas no campo. As análises ao microscópio de luz foram realizadas utilizando-se as técnicas usuais para o preparo de lâminas semipermamentes e permanentes. Para as análises no microscópio eletrônico de varredura, amostras de folhas foram fixadas em Karnovsky, desidratadas em série etílica e submetidas ao método do ponto crítico de CO2, montadas sobre suportes de alumínio e metalizadas. As sementes foram submetidas a diferentes temperaturas, sob fotoperíodo diário de oito horas e na ausência de luz. Para o enraizamento de estacas, foram utilizados ramos aéreos e subterrâneos com aproximadamente 20 cm, com duas regiões nodais submetidas ao tratamento com ácido indolbutírico a 100 ppm ou apenas em água destilada. Dentre os caracteres anatômicos que permitiram a delimitação da espécie destacam-se: estômatos anisocíticos e paracíticos presentes na epiderme da face abaxial; cera epicuticular na forma de grânulos globosos; mesofilo homogêneo com ampla câmara subestomática; presença da bainha amilífera nos primeiros entrenós do caule aéreo; presença de endoderme com reforço em U; ausência de meristema de espessamento no rizóforo adulto; presença de exoderme com estrias de Caspary nas raízes brancas e ausência de córtex interno nas raízes marrons. Em relação ao perfil químico, os extratos obtidos apresentaram picos correspondentes às substâncias: ácido clorogênico, ácido cafeico, rutina, ácido p-cumárico, ácido ferúlico e ácido trans-cinâmico. As melhores porcentagens de germinação foram 80% em 20-30º C no claro e 85% a 30ºC no escuro. Apenas as estacas de ramos subterrâneos enraizaram. Ao final de um ano de acompanhamento das plantas no campo, todas apresentaram em média 4.05 novos brotamentos. As espécies cujas partes utilizadas para o preparo dos medicamentos são as raízes correm maior risco de extinção como é o caso de S. fluminensis. Portanto, a capacidade de propagação por sementes, por estacas e de regeneração de ramos aéreos após a remoção de parte das estruturas subterrâneas aliada ao perfil químico confirma o seu potencial para a exploração econômica de maneira sustentável, sendo uma alternativa para reduzir o extrativismo predatório dessa espécie nativa. / The Smilax L. species, popularly known as salsaparrilha, have been used in folk medicine since the sixteenth century; however, these plants have still been handled in extractive way. With the increasing commercialization of medicinal plants, there is need to study to certify the raw material quality. Anatomical analyses and chemical profile characterization certainly provides a more secure basis to this certification. Aiming to meet the demand and to point proposals for sustainable management of natural occurrence of Smilax fluminensis Steud., the objectives of this study were: a) to analyze the morph-anatomy of vegetative organs and indicate the features of diagnostic value for this species, b) to examine the chemical profile of S. fluminensis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Diode Array Detector using methanol extracts (EMeOH) of roots, rhizophore and stems c) to conduct studies of seed germination and vegetative propagation on cuttings of aerial and subterranean stems and d) to monitor, over a year, the resprouting ability of plants in the field. We carried out the analyses under a light microscopy using the usual techniques for preparing semi-permanent and permanent slides. To perform the analyses under a scanning electron microscopy, leaf samples were fixed in Karnovsky, dehydrated in ethanol series and subjected to critical point method of CO2, mounted on aluminum supports and coated with gold. Seeds were exposed to different temperatures under a daily photoperiod of eight hours and in the absence of light. To analyze the sprouting, aerial and subterranean stems were used with about 20 cm of length, with two nodal regions subjected to treatment with IBA at 100 ppm or in distilled water. Among the anatomical features that enable delimitation of the species are: anisocytic and paracytic stomata in the epidermis of the abaxial surface, epicuticular wax in the form of granules globules, homogeneous mesophyll with large substomatal chambers, presence of starch sheath in the first internodes of the aerial stem, the presence of endoderm-reinforced U and the absence of primary thickening meristem in the adult rhizophore, exodermis with Casparian strips in roots, and the absence of inner cortex in brown roots. Regarding the chemical profile, extracts showed peaks corresponding to the following substances: chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and trans-Cinnamic acid. The best germination was 80% at 20-30ºC under light and 85% at 30ºC in the dark. Only roots sprouted. After one year of monitoring the plants in the field, all had an average of 4.05 new aerial shoots. The species whose roots are used for the preparation of medicines face a greater risk of extinction as is the case of S. fluminensis. Therefore, the ability to spread by seeds, cuttings and shoots regeneration after removal of aerial stems combined with the chemical profile confirms its potential for economic use in a sustainable manner, and an alternative to reduce the predatory extraction of native species.

No description available.

Der Wiederaustrieb beernteter Pappeln in Kurzumtriebsplantagen erfolgt nicht selten stark verzögert. Ob und inwieweit hierbei der Große Rote Pappelblattkäfer eine Rolle spielt, wurde in einem Versuch mit zwei unterschiedlichen Dichten des Schadinsekts untersucht.

Savanna woodlands are vitally important in providing ecological services (e.g. erosion protection, micro-climate) and economic services (e.g. timber, food, fodder non-wood products, and wild-life habitats) that sustain local livelihoods and national economies. Increasing demands and the need for sustainable savanna woodland resource management requires that the ecological, economic, social and cultural values of these resources be explored and brought to the attention of decision makers and the general public. The identification and better understanding of the structure and dynamics of woodland community types, patterns of species distribution and quantitative properties of their diversity is important to the conservation and sustainable management of these woodlands. This study seeks to contribute to a better understanding of Nakasongola woodland community types, species diversity patterns and environment correlates, natural regeneration processes (i.e. sprouting and seedling establishment) and identifying livelihood strategies adopted by households, woody species utilised, and the contribution of charcoal production to household livelihoods. Data on vegetation and environmental variables were collected using 75 rectangular 20 x 50 m (0.1 ha) plots. Data on land use and land cover changes, and relevant associated socio-economic parameters were collected through the analysis of multi-temporal satellite imagery and field observations, as well as interviews of local households and key informants. The basic major livelihood activities for the rural households in this savanna dryland are charcoal production, subsistence crop cultivation and livestock grazing. However, it, sometimes, includes various combinations of activities, i.e. charcoal production and subsistence crop cultivation for both food and cash, and livestock keeping for income generation through selling the livestock products such as milk and, sometimes, the whole animal. At least 24 woody species, including fruit trees (Mangifera indica and Artocarpus heterophyllus), are frequently harvested, including 16 species that are considered the most utilized for charcoal production. Charcoal production, being the major source of income to the rural households, contributes on average US$ 259 ± 46 (S.E.) per household annually. There were significant differences in charcoal production (Kruskal-Wallis; H = 31.42, p < 0.0001), producer sale prices per bag of charcoal (H = 35.62, p < 0.0001), and annual incomes from charcoal production (H = 32.44, p < 0.0001) per households across the 8 sub-counties. Most of the youth (≤ 20 years old) derive their livelihoods from charcoal production, a small amount of trade, offering labour services, livestock keeping, fishing, bee keeping and earth brick making. Charcoal production, livestock keeping and hunting are carried out particularly by men, whereas, crop cultivation, and collection of fire wood, medicinal plants and fruits are carried out, mainly, by women. However, men are also engaged in cultivation only during the rainy seasons. There have been significant land cover changes in the area during the period 1984 to 2001, resulting in a 64% decrease in dense woodland cover, and an 80% increase in areas under cultivation/settlements. These changes are attributed to significant spatial expansion in agriculture increased commercialisation of charcoal production, grazing and human population growth. A total of 44,195 (5,893 plants/ha) woody plants representing 99 species in 67 genera and 31 families were recorded. The most species rich families were Mimosaceae (13), Rubiaceae (9), Moraceae (7), Euphorbiaceae (7), Anacardiaceae (6), Combretaceae (5) and Verbenaceae (5). Density of woody species differed significantly (F2, 72 = 6.3, P < 0.003) among land uses, being higher under charcoal production (7,131 ± 755 plants/ha) and cultivation (6,612 ± 665) areas and significantly lower under grazing lands (4,152 ± 525). Community species composition differed significantly (Global RANOSIM = 0.14, p = 0.001) among land use types. All measures of beta-diversity (spatial “turnover” in species composition) showed consistently higher beta-diversity in the grazing land use (βW = 3.1; βT = 3.1), followed by cultivation (βW = 2.8; βT = 3.0) and charcoal production (βW = 2.7; βT = 2.8), suggesting a more heterogeneous spatial distribution of species in the grazing lands. This suggests that variations in the composition and diversity of woody species are to a great extent influenced by land use type and anthropogenic disturbances in this region. Basal area of woody species differed significantly (F2, 72 = 12.0, P < 0.0001) among land uses, being highest under cultivation and charcoal production and significantly lower under grazing. Woody plant density differed (F2,72 = 6.3, P = 0.003) across landuses, being highest under charcoal production and cultivation and significantly lower under grazing. The species that contributed most to both basal area and density across all the land uses were Combretum collinum and Combretum molle. However, different species contributed the next most i.e. Piliostigma thonningii for grazing; Albizia zygia and Harrisonia abyssinica for cultivation and Vepris nobilis for charcoal production areas. For both basal area and abundance of all woody species, the total variance in species-environmental factor relations (for the combined first four canonical axes) was higher than 50%, suggesting a relatively strong influence of the measured environment variables on species composition and distributions. The CCA points to a significant influence of soil Ca2+ and Mg2+ in association with grazing on gradients in the composition and structure of woody species in the savanna woodland of Nakasongola. Resprouting was generally common among the woody species. A total of 2,595 stumps, representing 74 species in 31 families were recorded from all plots. Of these, 98.3% resprouted and were identified to species level. Density of both stumps and total resprout differed significantly (p < 0.05) among the land uses, being higher in charcoal production areas than in grazing and cultivation land uses. For the overall pooled data, resprouts per stump differed significantly among land uses (F2, 456 = 7.75, p = 0.0005), being highest in charcoal production (mean ± S.E.; 14 ± 1) and cultivation (13 ± 1) land uses and lowest under grazing areas (10 ± 1). Generally, the mean number of resprouts per stump increased with increasing stump basal diameter (BD), being highest for BD size class > 41 cm. In relation to stump height, the highest mean resprouts/stump was found on stumps with heights ranging from 0.31- 0.40 m. Based on pooled species data, regression analyses showed weakly significant negative relationships between BD of leading resprouts and number of resprouts/stump (r2 = 0.123, p < 0.0001) and between height of leading resprouts and number of resprouts/stump (r2 = 0.068, p < 0.0001). Density of seedlings of woody species differed significantly among land use types (ANOVA; F2, 72 =5.9, p = 0.004), being highest for cultivation (3,162 ± 440 individuals ha-1), followed by charcoal production (2,416 ± 295 ha-1) and lowest for grazing (1,629 ± 205 ha-1). Composition of seedlings differed significantly among land use types (Global RANOSIM = 0.119, p = 0.001). The distributions and densities of some seedlings were explained by gradients in environmental variables, with edaphic factors (i.e. Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and organic matter) and charcoal production being the most important. The first two axes of the Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) explained 41.9% of the variance in species – environmental relations and were a reflection of edaphic and charcoal production land use gradients. All of the 16 highly utilized species were well represented in both the juvenile and adult classes, with gradually declining number of individuals with increasing stem size-class. This indicates that most of these species have high regeneration potential. Juvenile:adult tree ratios >1 and negative DSCD slopes indicate good recruitment and probably successful regeneration for these species. The study revealed land cover changes mainly in the dense and medium dense woodlands, reflected by the increase in open woodland, grasslands and cultivation/settlements. These trends threaten the livelihoods of local communities who are entirely dependent on these natural resources. Sustainable management will require the establishment of suitable integrated community-based institutions and management practices, with support from all key stakeholders (i.e. National Forest Authority (NFA)) and local communities. Maintenance of savanna woodland resources and other ecosystem services essential for human well-being will require an effective legal framework to prevent over-exploitation and give incentives for the protection of the fragile savanna woodland vegetation. An appropriate savanna woodland management policy will be required to guide changes in land use that accommodate the requirements of land users, aided by targeted conservation efforts to all woody plants and particularly for the highly utilized species for charcoal production as well as the multipurpose species. In addition, there is urgent need to build local capacity for improved harvesting and utilization of these tree species. This can be achieved through equipping local users with up to date information as well as observing the existing skills.