Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

The lack of safe drinking water worldwide has drawn the attention of decision makers to riverbank filtration (RBF) for its many advantages in purifying surface water. This study provides an overview of the hydrogeologic, fluvial, and environmental influences on the performance of RBF systems and aims to develop a model for RBF site selection. Using multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT), this study structured the RBF siting problem and assessed a multiplicative utility function for the decision maker. In a case study, geostatistical methods were used to acquire the necessary data and geographic information systems (GIS) were used to screen sites suitable for RBF implementation. Those suitable sites were then evaluated and ranked using the multi-attribute utility model. The result showed that sites can be identified as most preferred among the selected suitable sites based on their expected utility values. This study definitively answers the question regarding the capability of MAUT in RBF site selection. Further studies are needed to verify the influences of the attributes on the performance of RBF systems.:Abstract iii Zusammenfassung iv Acknowledgments v Table of Contents vi List of Tables viii List of Figures x Definition of terms xiii 1. Abbreviations xiii 2. Symbols xiii Part I Introduction 1 1. Introduction 2 2. Statement of purpose 2 3. Research questions 3 4. Overview of methodology 3 5. Organization of the dissertation 3 Part II Fundamentals and Literature Review 5 1. The definition of bank filtration 6 2. The Significance of RBF 7 2.1 RBF in drinking water supply 7 2.2 Benefits of RBF for China 14 3. RBF Site Selection 19 3.1 RBF site selection model 20 3.2 Definition of successful RBF sites 24 4. Factors Affecting RBF Site Selection 26 4.1 River hydrology/hydraulics 27 4.2 Geology 28 4.3 Land cover 36 4.4 Well field location 36 4.5 Water quality 37 4.6 Aquifer properties 38 4.7 Distance to river 41 4.8 Riverbed characteristics 43 5. Effect of Clogging on Yield 46 6. Summary 51 Part III Developing a Multi-attribute Utility Model for RBF Site Selection 53 1. Introduction 54 2. Objectives and Attributes 54 3. Assessment of the Utility Function 57 3.1 Investigation of the qualitative preference structure 58 3.2 Assessment of component utility function 62 3.3 Assessment of the scaling constants 63 4. Results 67 5. Discussion 69 6. Summary 74 Part IV Case Study 75 1. Introduction 76 2. Materials and Methods 78 2.1 GIS data collection 78 2.1.1 Geologic data 79 2.1.2 Land cover data 79 2.1.3 Groundwater quality data 80 2.1.4 Aquifer properties data 80 2.1.5 Surface water area data 80 2.1.6 Surface water quality data 81 2.1.7 Streambed material data 81 2.2 Kriging the saturated thickness 91 2.3 Aggregation of all constraint maps 103 3. Results 105 3.1 Kriging 105 3.2 Suitable sites 105 4. Discussion 109 4.1 A discussion of the kriging results 109 4.2 A discussion of the multi-attribute utility model results 117 5. Summary 122 Part V Conclusions and Recommendations 123 1. Conclusion and Recommendation 124 Appendix 1 Environmental quality standards for surface water (GB 3838-2002) 125 Appendix 2 Quality standard for groundwater (GB14848-93) 127 Appendix 3 Explanation to Germany’s RBF site location data 130 Appendix 4 Layer information of drillings 133 Appendix 5 Streambed materials used by Schälchli (1993) 141 Appendix 6 Interview and questionnaires 143 Appendix 7 Surface water area of Jilin City 150 Bibliography 152

Asian countries are urbanizing at an unprecedented rate, which has led to significant demand for sand. While sand mining fuels infrastructure development, creates livelihoods, and stimulates local economic activity, it also drives a series of environmental and socio-economic consequences which cannot be ignored. These include erosion, the destruction of habitats and loss of biodiversity, the deterioration of traditional livelihoods, forced displacement of communities, and damage to homes and infrastructure. On the one hand, this thesis uses mixed methods to study the multifaceted impacts of sand mining along the Red River in China, near the Vietnamese border. On the other hand, using qualitative methods, it explores how these impacts unfold along the Mekong River in Cambodia, near Phnom Penh. Using a political ecology approach, it identifies the actors involved in sand mining, their motives, and their impacts on the environment and local communities. The extractivism framework is used to describe sand mining activities and practices. In doing so, this thesis contributes to the literature on the understudied sand mining industry and its far-reaching impacts.

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Die Uferfiltration (UF) ist eine potentielle Alternative zur konventionellen Oberflächenwasseraufbereitung in Indien, da Trübstoffe, pathogene Mikroorganismen und organische Wasserinhaltsstoffe effektiv entfernt werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmals ein umfangreicher Überblick zu bestehenden UF-Anlagen in Indien erarbeitet. Für die Standorterkundung und -bewertung wurde ein Konzept erarbeitet, das an drei Standorten entlang des Ganges getestet und weiterentwickelt wurde. Das Konzept umfasst vier Stufen: Standortvorerkundung, Bestimmung von Grundwasserleiterparametern, Erfassung von hydraulischen und Beschaffenheits-parametern sowie numerische Grundwasser-strömungsmodellierung. Entlang des oberen Flusslaufes des Ganges (Haridwar und Srinagar) wurden günstige geohydraulische Verhältnisse identifiziert (kf = 10E-4 bis 10E-3 m/s, Grundwasser leitermächtigkeit 11 bis 20 m). Entlang des unteren Flusslaufes (Patna) gibt es in Abhängigkeit von der Mächtigkeit der Sedimentablagerungen im Ganges nur bei erhöhter Schleppkraft im Monsun eine gute hydraulische Verbindung zwischen dem Fluss und dem Grundwasserleiter. In Haridwar wurde der Uferfiltratanteil im Rohwasser mittels Isotopenanalysen (δ18O) und Leitfähigkeitsmessungen im Fluss- und Rohwasser ermittelt. Der Uferfiltratanteil in den auf einer Insel und südlich davon gelegenen Brunnen liegt bei bis zu 90%. An den untersuchten Standorten wird durch die UF eine effektive Entfernung von E. coli um 3,5 bis 4,4 Log10 und der Trübung bis >2 Log10 Einheiten erreicht. Eine Entfernung von 3 Log10 Einheiten wurde bereits bei einer Fließzeit des Uferfiltrats von zwei Tagen beobachtet. Die erhöhte Anzahl an Coliformen in einigen Brunnen am Standort Haridwar resultiert aus Verunreinigungen des landseitigen Grundwassers. Bei Hochwässern und Starkregenereignissen muss eine Kontamination durch den direkten Eintrag von Wasser durch undichte Brunnenabdeckungen, Risse in den Schächten bzw. unsachgemäßen Brunnenbau berücksichtigt werden. Die Anwendung des angepassten Untersuchungskonzepts an 15 weiteren UF-Standorten in Indien hat gezeigt, dass die niedrigen DOC-Konzentrationen im Flusswasser (0,9 bis 3,0 mg/L) und im Brunnenwasser (0,4 bis 2,3 mg/L) günstig für die Anwendung der UF sind. Bei erhöhten DOC-Konzentrationen (Vormonsun) im Flusswasser konnte in Delhi und Mathura im Monsun eine 50%ige Verminderung erreicht werden. Bei der Erkundung neuer UF-Standorte in bergigen Gebieten sind die Grundwasserleitermächtigkeit mit geophysikalischen Erkundungsverfahren, die Strömungsverhältnisse in den alluvialen Ablagerungen sowie lokale Hochwasserrisiken zu untersuchen. / Riverbank filtration or bank filtration (RBF / BF) is a potential alternative to the direct abstraction and conventional treatment of surface water by virtue of the effective removal of pathogens, turbidity, suspended particles and organic substances. A comprehensive overview of existing RBF systems in India has been compiled for the first time. To systematically select and investigate new and existing potential RBF sites in India, a methodological concept was developed and tested at three sites along the Ganga River. The four stages of the concept are: initial site-assessment, basic site-survey, monitoring of water quality and quantity parameters and determination of aquifer parameters and numerical groundwater flow modelling. Suitable geohydraulic conditions for RBF (hydraulic conductivity: 10E-4 to 10E-3 m/s, aquifer thickness: 11 to 20 m) exist along the upper course of the Ganga (Haridwar and Srinagar). Due to the presence of fine sediment layers beneath the river bed along the Ganga’s lower course (Patna), river-aquifer interaction occurs during increased shear stress on the riverbed in monsoon. The portion of bank filtrate abstracted by the wells in Haridwar was determined from isotope analyses (Oxygen 18) and electrical conductivity measurements of river and well water and is up to 90% for wells located on an island and between the river and a canal. The results were confirmed by groundwater flow modelling. A high removal of E. coli (3.5 to 4.4 Log10 units) and turbidity (>2 Log10 units) was observed at the investigated sites. An E. coli removal of 3 Log10 units was observed for short travel times of 2 days. Higher coliform counts in some wells occur due to contamination from landside groundwater. During floods and intense rainfall events, contamination of RBF wells from direct entry of flood water, seepage of surface runoff into the well through leaky covers, fissures in the well-heads / caissons and in-appropriately sealed well-bases has to be considered. The application of the adapted investigation concept to 15 other sites in India showed that the low DOC concentrations in river water (0.9 to 3.0 mg/L) and well-water (0.4 to 2.3 mg/L) are favourable for the application of RBF. A 50% decrease of the high (pre-monsoon) DOC concentration was observed during monsoon in Delhi and Mathura. For the exploration of new RBF sites in hilly / mountainous areas, investigations of the aquifer thickness using geophysical methods, subsurface flow conditions in the alluvial deposits and the risk from floods should be conducted.

Berlin et Londres sont traversées par des fleuves. La Tamise s’écoule après 346 km dans la Mer du Nord. Berlin est traversée par la Spree et la Havel ; la Spree a une longueur de 400 km et la Havel de 325 km ; ces fleuves sont connectés par l’Elbe à la Mer du Nord. La population s’est sédentarisée sur les bords des fleuves à cause de la présence d’eau potable. À partir du Moyen - Âge, la situation a changé. Les gens ont utilisé le fleuve afin d’éliminer les eaux usées de la ville et des marchandises ont été transportées par la voie fluviale. Autrefois, des industries ont bordé ces fleuves. Aujourd’hui, ils n’occupent plus ces fonctions et les friches industrielles peuvent être réaménagées. Ces fleuves urbains peuvent créer soit une rupture, soit une opportunité en matière d’aménagement du territoire. Chaque métropole a ses propres conceptions d’aménagement. De nombreux projets d’aménagement sur les friches industrielles ont été déjà réalisés comme celui des Docklands à Londres et le projet Museumsinsel à Berlin. La mixité fonctionnelle avec la création de logements, de tertiaire supérieur et d’espaces verts est prédominante dans le projet des Docklands à Londres. Le projet Museumsinsel est orienté vers la culture. Le problème de la gentrification apparaît avec ces projets. Beaucoup d’habitants qui vivent dans ces quartiers ne peuvent plus payer les loyers croissants et doivent quitter leurs logements dans la capitale. Les berges seront -Elles seulement destinées à la classe aisée ou à tout public ? Par conséquent, les projets peuvent créer une rupture territoriale. Mais les projets d’aménagement sont une opportunité quand ils s’intègrent dans le tissu urbain existant. / Berlin and London are crossed by rivers. The River Thames flows after 346 km in the North Sea. Berlin is crossed by the Spree and the Havel. The Spree has a length of 400 km and the Havel of 325 km; these two rivers are connected by the Elbe to the North Sea. The population was sedentary on the river banks due to the presence of drinking water. From the Middle – Ages, the situation has changed. The people used the river to eliminate wastewater from the city and transport goods by the waterway. In the past, the industries have bordered these rivers. Today, they no longer occupy these functions and the industrial wastelands can be redeveloped. These urban rivers can either create a city break or an opportunity in terms of planning. Each metropolis has its own conceptions. Many urban projects on industrial wastelands have already been realized such as the London Docklands and the Museumsinsel project in Berlin. On the one hand, the functional mix with the creation of housing, trade, services and green areas is predominant in the project of the Docklands in London. On the other hand, the Museumsinsel project is directed towards the culture. The problem of gentrification appears with these projects. Many inhabitants who live in these districts can no longer pay the increasing rents and must leave their homes in the metropolis. Will the riverbanks be only intended for the upper class people or at any public ? Therefore, the projects can create a territorial rupture. But, urban projects can also be an opportunity, when they fit into the existing urban morphology. / Berlin und London haben eine Gemeinsamkeit, sie werden alle von Flüssen durchquert. Die Themse fliest nach 346 km in die Nordsee. Berlin wird von der Havel und der Spree durchquert. Die Spree hat eine Länge von 400 km und die Havel erstreckt sich auf 325 km und diese beiden Flüsse münden in die Elbe die wiederrum in die Nordsee fliest. Die Menschen siedelten sich an den Flüssen an, weil sie hier Trinkwasser fanden. Ab dem Mittelalter veränderte sich jedoch die Situation, die Menschen benutzten nun den Fluss zur Entsorgung der Abwässer der Stadt und zur Beförderung der Waren auf dem Flussweg. Industrien siedelten sich früher entlang der Flüsse an. Heute, erfüllen sie diese Aufgabe nicht mehr und das Industriebrachland steht für neue Projekte zur Verfügung. Die Flüsse die durch die Großstädte fließen, können entweder einen Bruch oder eine günstige Gelegenheit für die Stadt sein. Dies ist jedoch abhängig von der Stadtplanung, denn jede Hauptstadt besitzt seine eigene Auffassung zu diesem Thema. Viele Projekte auf Industriebrachen wurden bereits fertiggestellt, wie zum Beispiel das Projekt der Docklands in London und das Projekt der Museumsinsel in Berlin. Die Hauptaspekte des Projektes der Docklands in London bestehen in der Verwirklichung einer funktionellen Mischung aus Wohnungen, Gewerben, Dienstleistungen und Grünflächen. Die Kultur stand jedoch im Mittelpunkt des Projekts der Museumsinsel in Berlin. Diese neuen Bauprojekte können aber ein Gentrifizierungsproblem verursachen. Viele Bewohner dieser Viertel können die steigenden Mieten nicht mehr bezahlen und müssen Ihre Wohnungen in der Hauptstadt verlassen. Die Uferböschungen entlang der Flüsse, sind diese also nur für die obere Gesellschaftsschicht bestimmt oder sind sie für alle Leute ? Folglich, können diese Projekte einen territorialen Riss verursachen. Aber die Projekte können aber auch eine Bereicherung sein, wenn sie sich gut in die bestehende Baustruktur einfügen.

A research program was undertaken to quantify the effect of flow induced erosion on the stability of natural river banks along the Red River in Manitoba. The Erosion Measurement Device (EMD) was designed and built in the Geotechnical Laboratory of University of Manitoba to approximate the erosion rate profiles of soil samples from nine sites along the RedRiver. Two simulations of a natural flood event and one of the same flood with the operation of the Floodway were then used to determine the difference in the lower toe erosion and the slopes reduction of the global factor of safety. These results indicate that the operation of the Floodway does not have negative impact on the stability of river banks upstream of the Floodway inlet.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-08-16T12:27:29Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Gilliard Pedro Marques - 2016.pdf: 7292314 bytes, checksum: 8dd9c621180554a91ab4360cf8abfd76 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-08-16T12:54:15Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Gilliard Pedro Marques - 2016.pdf: 7292314 bytes, checksum: 8dd9c621180554a91ab4360cf8abfd76 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-16T12:54:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Gilliard Pedro Marques - 2016.pdf: 7292314 bytes, checksum: 8dd9c621180554a91ab4360cf8abfd76 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-28 / The Samambaia Stream is located in the municipality of Catalão (GO). In addition to serving the riverbank population in their various activities, since 1974 it began to be used for water capturing and public supply to Catalão town. According to IBGE (2015), in 1970, Catalão population was no more than 30 thousand. However, currently it accounts with 98.737 thousand inhabitants. Faced with this population growth and among other demands for 40 years, a few has been invested and made properly for the environmental improvement of the Hydrographic Basin of Samambaia Stream. The environmental recovery program applied in 2004 denied the riverbank population participation and restricted the seedlings plantation in Permanent Preservation Areas (PPAs), without any concern with its the maintenance. In September 2014, the Catalão town's High Public Power faced many difficulties in public water supply. This agency by means of the Municipal Water and Sewer Superintendence (MWSS) entered with a precautionary measure request to the Judiciary, which was granted to implement the sealing of irrigation pumps and the obstruction of all forms of water catchment from riverbank population. The achievement of this measure, among other actions, has unfolded in an expressive conflict between riverbank population and Catalão town’s High Public Power. Thus, this work had as main aim to understand the water resources’ management in Brazil, as well as to understand the conflicts for water and its appropriation and expropriation in the riverbank population's territory of the Hydrographic Basin of Samambaia Stream in Catalão (GO), in 2014. Concerning the methodology, it was prevailed by two research stages: the theoretical and documentary research. Among the literature, stands out the authors: Orlando (2005), Campos and Fracalanza (2010), Scantimburgo (2013) and others. In regard of the documents: The Lei Federal no. 9.433, which establishes the National Policy for Water Resources and the losses' collection of riverbank population's productions due to sealing of their water catchment pumps and dam breakage. Finally, it is considered that a public administration that ensures water quantity and quality to the present and future generations still poses as a great challenge in current Brazil. Besides, about the conflict for water in the Hydrographic Basin of Samambaia Stream, it is undeniable the inability of the Municipal Public Power of Catalão town in dialogue and recognize the importance of riverbank population in water management activities. / O Ribeirão Samambaia, o qual localiza-se no município de Catalão (GO), além de servir as populações ribeirinhas nas suas diversas atividades passou a ser utilizado para captação e abastecimento público da cidade de Catalão, desde 1974. Segundo o IBGE (2015), na década de 1970, a população do município de Catalão não passava de 30 mil. Porém, atualmente, conta com 98.737 mil habitantes. Perante este crescimento populacional e entre outras demandas ao longo de 40 anos, pouco se investiu e se fez adequadamente para a melhoria ambiental da Bacia Hidrográfica do Ribeirão Samambaia. O programa de recuperação ambiental, aplicado em 2004, negou o direito da participação das populações ribeirinhas, e restringiu o isolamento e plantio de mudas nas áreas de preservação permanentes (APP’s), sem nenhuma preocupação com a manutenção. Em setembro de 2014, o Poder Público Municipal de Catalão enfrentou muitas dificuldades no abastecimento público de água. Ele, por meio da Superintendência Municipal de Água e Esgoto (SAE), entrou com um pedido de Medida Cautelar ao Judiciário, a qual foi concedida para implementar a lacração de bombas de irrigação e a obstrução de todas as formas de captação de água dos ribeirinhos. A consecução desta medida, entre outras ações, desdobrou em um expressivo conflito entre os ribeirinhos e Poder Público Municipal de Catalão. Assim, este trabalho teve como o objetivo geral compreender a gestão das águas no Brasil, bem como o conflito pela água e a sua apropriação e expropriação no território dos ribeirinhos, da Bacia Hidrográfica do Ribeirão Samambaia, no município de Catalão (GO), em 2014. Em relação à metodologia, esta perpassou por duas etapas de investigação: a pesquisa teórica e a documental. Dentre a literatura, destaca-se os autores: Orlando (2005), Campos e Fracalanza (2010), Scantimburgo (2013), dentre outros. Em relação aos documentos: a Lei Federal n. 9.433, a qual institui a Política Nacional dos Recursos Hídricos, e o levantamento de perdas das produções dos ribeirinhos decorrentes dos lacres das bombas e arrombamento das represas. Por fim, considera-se que uma gestão que assegure água em quantidade e qualidade às gerações presentes e futuras, ainda se apresenta como um grande desafio no Brasil atual. Além disso, sobre o conflito pela água na Bacia Hidrográfica do Ribeirão Samambaia, é inegável a incapacidade do Poder Público Municipal de Catalão em dialogar e reconhecer a importância dos ribeirinhos como sujeitos primordiais na gestão das águas.

Die Uferfiltration (UF) ist eine potentielle Alternative zur konventionellen Oberflächenwasseraufbereitung in Indien, da Trübstoffe, pathogene Mikroorganismen und organische Wasserinhaltsstoffe effektiv entfernt werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmals ein umfangreicher Überblick zu bestehenden UF-Anlagen in Indien erarbeitet. Für die Standorterkundung und -bewertung wurde ein Konzept erarbeitet, das an drei Standorten entlang des Ganges getestet und weiterentwickelt wurde. Das Konzept umfasst vier Stufen: Standortvorerkundung, Bestimmung von Grundwasserleiterparametern, Erfassung von hydraulischen und Beschaffenheits-parametern sowie numerische Grundwasser-strömungsmodellierung. Entlang des oberen Flusslaufes des Ganges (Haridwar und Srinagar) wurden günstige geohydraulische Verhältnisse identifiziert (kf = 10E-4 bis 10E-3 m/s, Grundwasser leitermächtigkeit 11 bis 20 m). Entlang des unteren Flusslaufes (Patna) gibt es in Abhängigkeit von der Mächtigkeit der Sedimentablagerungen im Ganges nur bei erhöhter Schleppkraft im Monsun eine gute hydraulische Verbindung zwischen dem Fluss und dem Grundwasserleiter. In Haridwar wurde der Uferfiltratanteil im Rohwasser mittels Isotopenanalysen (δ18O) und Leitfähigkeitsmessungen im Fluss- und Rohwasser ermittelt. Der Uferfiltratanteil in den auf einer Insel und südlich davon gelegenen Brunnen liegt bei bis zu 90%. An den untersuchten Standorten wird durch die UF eine effektive Entfernung von E. coli um 3,5 bis 4,4 Log10 und der Trübung bis >2 Log10 Einheiten erreicht. Eine Entfernung von 3 Log10 Einheiten wurde bereits bei einer Fließzeit des Uferfiltrats von zwei Tagen beobachtet. Die erhöhte Anzahl an Coliformen in einigen Brunnen am Standort Haridwar resultiert aus Verunreinigungen des landseitigen Grundwassers. Bei Hochwässern und Starkregenereignissen muss eine Kontamination durch den direkten Eintrag von Wasser durch undichte Brunnenabdeckungen, Risse in den Schächten bzw. unsachgemäßen Brunnenbau berücksichtigt werden. Die Anwendung des angepassten Untersuchungskonzepts an 15 weiteren UF-Standorten in Indien hat gezeigt, dass die niedrigen DOC-Konzentrationen im Flusswasser (0,9 bis 3,0 mg/L) und im Brunnenwasser (0,4 bis 2,3 mg/L) günstig für die Anwendung der UF sind. Bei erhöhten DOC-Konzentrationen (Vormonsun) im Flusswasser konnte in Delhi und Mathura im Monsun eine 50%ige Verminderung erreicht werden. Bei der Erkundung neuer UF-Standorte in bergigen Gebieten sind die Grundwasserleitermächtigkeit mit geophysikalischen Erkundungsverfahren, die Strömungsverhältnisse in den alluvialen Ablagerungen sowie lokale Hochwasserrisiken zu untersuchen.:Abstract i (Seitenzahl / page number) Acknowledgements iii Table of contents v List of tables viii List of figures ix Abbreviations and symbols xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Problem description 1 1.2 Riverbank filtration and its potential in India 2 1.3 Motivation 3 1.4 Aims 4 2 Bank filtration in context to India’s water resources 5 2.1 Water budget of India and the Ganga River catchment 5 2.1.1 Water budget 5 2.1.2 The Ganga River catchment 6 2.2 Problems of surface water abstraction for drinking water production 8 2.2.1 Effect of low surface flows on the quantity of raw water abstraction 8 2.2.2 Effect of the monsoon on conventional drinking water treatment plants using directly abstracted surface water 9 2.2.3 Quality of surface water 10 2.2.4 Treatment of directly abstracted surface water for drinking 11 2.3 Sustainability issues of groundwater abstraction 11 2.4 Drinking water consumption in India 12 2.5 Bank filtration for water supply 14 2.5.1 Geohydraulic, siting and design aspects of bank filtration systems 14 2.5.2 Water quality aspects 15 2.5.3 Water quality aspects for bank filtration in India 15 2.5.4 Risks to riverbank filtration sites from floods 16 2.6 Hypotheses favouring the use of bank filtration and the need for a concept to investigate potential RBF sites in India 17 3 Study areas 18 3.1 Choice of study areas 18 3.2 Case study site Haridwar 19 3.3 Case study site Patna 20 3.4 Case study site Srinagar in Uttarakhand 21 3.5 Hypotheses favouring RBF at the selected study sites 22 4 Methodology for the investigation of the case study sites 24 4.1 Overview of methodology for investigating the case-study sites 24 4.2 Investigations at the case study site of Haridwar 25 4.2.1 Initial site-assessment 25 4.2.2 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 26 4.2.2.1 Identification of specific locations for monitoring wells 26 4.2.2.2 Geodetic survey and inventory of existing on-site infrastructure 26 4.2.2.3 Construction of exploratory wells 27 4.2.3 Determination of hydrogeological parameters 27 4.2.3.1 Sediment analyses 27 4.2.3.2 Determination of hydraulic conductivity by pump tests on large-diameter wells 29 4.2.4 Water level and stable isotope measurements 30 4.2.4.1 Water level 30 4.2.4.2 Stable isotopes 31 4.2.5 Water quality monitoring 31 4.2.5.1 Initial investigations, screening and formulation of monitoring concept 31 4.2.5.2 Comprehensive and regular monitoring 2011 - 2013 33 4.3 Investigations at the case study site of Patna 34 4.3.1 Initial site-assessment, basic-site survey and monitoring 34 4.3.2 Sampling for water quality and isotope analyses 35 4.4 Investigations at the case study site of Srinagar in Uttarakhand 35 4.4.1 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 35 4.4.1.1 Identification of a specific location for a new RBF well 35 4.4.1.2 Construction of production and monitoring wells and exploratory boreholes 37 4.4.2 Determination of hydrogeological parameters and monitoring 38 4.4.2.1 Sediment analyses and determination of hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer 38 4.4.3 Water quality monitoring 40 4.5 Column experiments to determine the removal of bacteriological indicators under field conditions 40 5 Characterisation of the RBF system in Haridwar 42 5.1 Site and design aspects 42 5.1.1 Location of RBF wells 42 5.1.2 Design of RBF wells 44 5.1.3 Quantity of drinking water produced by RBF 45 5.2 Aquifer characterisation 47 5.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of RBF well field in Haridwar 49 5.3.1 Model set-up 49 5.3.2 Model calibration 50 5.4 Origin of water and mean portion of bank filtrate abstracted by RBF wells 52 5.5 Water quality 53 5.6 Analysis of presence of thermotolerant coliforms in RBF wells 56 5.7 Impact of regulated Upper Ganga Canal on RBF wells on Pant Dweep 58 5.8 Summary of case study site Haridwar 60 5.8.1 Aspects related to water quality 60 5.8.2 Benefit of groundwater flow modelling 60 6 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Patna 62 6.1 Physiography and hydrogeology 62 6.1.1 South Ganga Plain 62 6.1.2 Patna 63 6.2 Ground and surface water levels 65 6.3 Ganga River morphology 66 6.4 Water quality 67 6.5 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Patna 68 6.5.1 Model geometry and initial conditions 68 6.5.2 Boundary conditions 69 6.5.3 Steady-state flow modelling 70 6.6 Isotope analyses 71 6.7 Summary of case study site Patna 71 7 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Srinagar 73 7.1 Drinking water production and overview of geomorphology 73 7.2 RBF site characterisation 74 7.2.1 Aquifer geometry and material 74 7.2.2 Water levels 75 7.2.3 Hydraulic conductivity 76 7.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Srinagar 77 7.3.1 Model geometry and calibration 77 7.3.2 Origin of bank filtrate and travel time 78 7.4 Water quality 79 7.5 Discussion and summary of case study site Srinagar 81 8 Assessment of risks from floods and insufficient sanitary measures to RBF wells in Haridwar and Srinagar 82 8.1 Flood-risk identification from field investigations 82 8.1.1 Description of an extreme flood event in Haridwar 82 8.1.2 Description of an extreme flood event in Srinagar 82 8.1.3 Summary of identifiable risks 83 8.2 Assessment of risks to RBF wells 84 8.2.1 Design of wells and direct contamination 84 8.2.2 Field investigations on the removal of bacteriological indicators 85 8.2.3 Removal of coliforms under field conditions by column experiments 87 8.3 Proposals to mitigate risks at RBF sites Haridwar and Srinagar 89 8.3.1 Operational and technical aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.2 Health aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.3 Criteria for flood protection measures of RBF wells 90 8.3.4 Sanitary sealing of RBF wells 90 9 Application of initial site-assessment to investigate other RBF sites in India 92 9.1 Hydrogeology and system-design 92 9.1.1 RBF systems for small and large-scale urban water supply 92 9.1.2 “Koop” well RBF systems for small-scale rural water supply 98 9.2 Water quality parameters 98 9.2.1 Removal of bacteriological indicators by RBF 98 9.2.2 Removal of dissolved organic carbon and organic micropollutants by RBF 101 9.2.3 Inorganic parameters 102 10 Conclusions, recommendations and propagation of RBF 105 10.1 Hydrogeological and system-design considerations 105 10.2 Aspects for improvement of the concept for RBF site investigations 106 10.3 Policy and planning aspects for the propagation of RBF in India 108 References 110 Annexes 121 / Riverbank filtration or bank filtration (RBF / BF) is a potential alternative to the direct abstraction and conventional treatment of surface water by virtue of the effective removal of pathogens, turbidity, suspended particles and organic substances. A comprehensive overview of existing RBF systems in India has been compiled for the first time. To systematically select and investigate new and existing potential RBF sites in India, a methodological concept was developed and tested at three sites along the Ganga River. The four stages of the concept are: initial site-assessment, basic site-survey, monitoring of water quality and quantity parameters and determination of aquifer parameters and numerical groundwater flow modelling. Suitable geohydraulic conditions for RBF (hydraulic conductivity: 10E-4 to 10E-3 m/s, aquifer thickness: 11 to 20 m) exist along the upper course of the Ganga (Haridwar and Srinagar). Due to the presence of fine sediment layers beneath the river bed along the Ganga’s lower course (Patna), river-aquifer interaction occurs during increased shear stress on the riverbed in monsoon. The portion of bank filtrate abstracted by the wells in Haridwar was determined from isotope analyses (Oxygen 18) and electrical conductivity measurements of river and well water and is up to 90% for wells located on an island and between the river and a canal. The results were confirmed by groundwater flow modelling. A high removal of E. coli (3.5 to 4.4 Log10 units) and turbidity (>2 Log10 units) was observed at the investigated sites. An E. coli removal of 3 Log10 units was observed for short travel times of 2 days. Higher coliform counts in some wells occur due to contamination from landside groundwater. During floods and intense rainfall events, contamination of RBF wells from direct entry of flood water, seepage of surface runoff into the well through leaky covers, fissures in the well-heads / caissons and in-appropriately sealed well-bases has to be considered. The application of the adapted investigation concept to 15 other sites in India showed that the low DOC concentrations in river water (0.9 to 3.0 mg/L) and well-water (0.4 to 2.3 mg/L) are favourable for the application of RBF. A 50% decrease of the high (pre-monsoon) DOC concentration was observed during monsoon in Delhi and Mathura. For the exploration of new RBF sites in hilly / mountainous areas, investigations of the aquifer thickness using geophysical methods, subsurface flow conditions in the alluvial deposits and the risk from floods should be conducted.:Abstract i (Seitenzahl / page number) Acknowledgements iii Table of contents v List of tables viii List of figures ix Abbreviations and symbols xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Problem description 1 1.2 Riverbank filtration and its potential in India 2 1.3 Motivation 3 1.4 Aims 4 2 Bank filtration in context to India’s water resources 5 2.1 Water budget of India and the Ganga River catchment 5 2.1.1 Water budget 5 2.1.2 The Ganga River catchment 6 2.2 Problems of surface water abstraction for drinking water production 8 2.2.1 Effect of low surface flows on the quantity of raw water abstraction 8 2.2.2 Effect of the monsoon on conventional drinking water treatment plants using directly abstracted surface water 9 2.2.3 Quality of surface water 10 2.2.4 Treatment of directly abstracted surface water for drinking 11 2.3 Sustainability issues of groundwater abstraction 11 2.4 Drinking water consumption in India 12 2.5 Bank filtration for water supply 14 2.5.1 Geohydraulic, siting and design aspects of bank filtration systems 14 2.5.2 Water quality aspects 15 2.5.3 Water quality aspects for bank filtration in India 15 2.5.4 Risks to riverbank filtration sites from floods 16 2.6 Hypotheses favouring the use of bank filtration and the need for a concept to investigate potential RBF sites in India 17 3 Study areas 18 3.1 Choice of study areas 18 3.2 Case study site Haridwar 19 3.3 Case study site Patna 20 3.4 Case study site Srinagar in Uttarakhand 21 3.5 Hypotheses favouring RBF at the selected study sites 22 4 Methodology for the investigation of the case study sites 24 4.1 Overview of methodology for investigating the case-study sites 24 4.2 Investigations at the case study site of Haridwar 25 4.2.1 Initial site-assessment 25 4.2.2 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 26 4.2.2.1 Identification of specific locations for monitoring wells 26 4.2.2.2 Geodetic survey and inventory of existing on-site infrastructure 26 4.2.2.3 Construction of exploratory wells 27 4.2.3 Determination of hydrogeological parameters 27 4.2.3.1 Sediment analyses 27 4.2.3.2 Determination of hydraulic conductivity by pump tests on large-diameter wells 29 4.2.4 Water level and stable isotope measurements 30 4.2.4.1 Water level 30 4.2.4.2 Stable isotopes 31 4.2.5 Water quality monitoring 31 4.2.5.1 Initial investigations, screening and formulation of monitoring concept 31 4.2.5.2 Comprehensive and regular monitoring 2011 - 2013 33 4.3 Investigations at the case study site of Patna 34 4.3.1 Initial site-assessment, basic-site survey and monitoring 34 4.3.2 Sampling for water quality and isotope analyses 35 4.4 Investigations at the case study site of Srinagar in Uttarakhand 35 4.4.1 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 35 4.4.1.1 Identification of a specific location for a new RBF well 35 4.4.1.2 Construction of production and monitoring wells and exploratory boreholes 37 4.4.2 Determination of hydrogeological parameters and monitoring 38 4.4.2.1 Sediment analyses and determination of hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer 38 4.4.3 Water quality monitoring 40 4.5 Column experiments to determine the removal of bacteriological indicators under field conditions 40 5 Characterisation of the RBF system in Haridwar 42 5.1 Site and design aspects 42 5.1.1 Location of RBF wells 42 5.1.2 Design of RBF wells 44 5.1.3 Quantity of drinking water produced by RBF 45 5.2 Aquifer characterisation 47 5.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of RBF well field in Haridwar 49 5.3.1 Model set-up 49 5.3.2 Model calibration 50 5.4 Origin of water and mean portion of bank filtrate abstracted by RBF wells 52 5.5 Water quality 53 5.6 Analysis of presence of thermotolerant coliforms in RBF wells 56 5.7 Impact of regulated Upper Ganga Canal on RBF wells on Pant Dweep 58 5.8 Summary of case study site Haridwar 60 5.8.1 Aspects related to water quality 60 5.8.2 Benefit of groundwater flow modelling 60 6 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Patna 62 6.1 Physiography and hydrogeology 62 6.1.1 South Ganga Plain 62 6.1.2 Patna 63 6.2 Ground and surface water levels 65 6.3 Ganga River morphology 66 6.4 Water quality 67 6.5 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Patna 68 6.5.1 Model geometry and initial conditions 68 6.5.2 Boundary conditions 69 6.5.3 Steady-state flow modelling 70 6.6 Isotope analyses 71 6.7 Summary of case study site Patna 71 7 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Srinagar 73 7.1 Drinking water production and overview of geomorphology 73 7.2 RBF site characterisation 74 7.2.1 Aquifer geometry and material 74 7.2.2 Water levels 75 7.2.3 Hydraulic conductivity 76 7.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Srinagar 77 7.3.1 Model geometry and calibration 77 7.3.2 Origin of bank filtrate and travel time 78 7.4 Water quality 79 7.5 Discussion and summary of case study site Srinagar 81 8 Assessment of risks from floods and insufficient sanitary measures to RBF wells in Haridwar and Srinagar 82 8.1 Flood-risk identification from field investigations 82 8.1.1 Description of an extreme flood event in Haridwar 82 8.1.2 Description of an extreme flood event in Srinagar 82 8.1.3 Summary of identifiable risks 83 8.2 Assessment of risks to RBF wells 84 8.2.1 Design of wells and direct contamination 84 8.2.2 Field investigations on the removal of bacteriological indicators 85 8.2.3 Removal of coliforms under field conditions by column experiments 87 8.3 Proposals to mitigate risks at RBF sites Haridwar and Srinagar 89 8.3.1 Operational and technical aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.2 Health aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.3 Criteria for flood protection measures of RBF wells 90 8.3.4 Sanitary sealing of RBF wells 90 9 Application of initial site-assessment to investigate other RBF sites in India 92 9.1 Hydrogeology and system-design 92 9.1.1 RBF systems for small and large-scale urban water supply 92 9.1.2 “Koop” well RBF systems for small-scale rural water supply 98 9.2 Water quality parameters 98 9.2.1 Removal of bacteriological indicators by RBF 98 9.2.2 Removal of dissolved organic carbon and organic micropollutants by RBF 101 9.2.3 Inorganic parameters 102 10 Conclusions, recommendations and propagation of RBF 105 10.1 Hydrogeological and system-design considerations 105 10.2 Aspects for improvement of the concept for RBF site investigations 106 10.3 Policy and planning aspects for the propagation of RBF in India 108 References 110 Annexes 121

The assignment of the diploma thesis follows the pre-diploma project of an urbanistic design - New South District and its Connection to Svratka. The subject of the thesis is a design of the apartment building on the riverside of Svratka. The thesis has a form of architectonic study. The architectural design is interconnected with surrounding built-up area and preserves the existing height level. It also respects the definened riverside. The construction has a shape of the letter "U" opening towards the river. The shift of the north "wing" of the building creats widened "inner block". It offers diverse views on the river and accentuates an "incorporation" of the river to inner block. The residential building has six floors and two underground parking floors. It is devided into 7 units with separate entrances. The proposed part of the building is located directly on the riverbank. It includes 16 housing units and one leasable space.