Immigrant entrepreneurship is defined as business establishment and ownership among immigrants who arrive to a new host country. Immigrant entrepreneurship has become an important theme due to the increasing rates of immigration to developed countries, and its impact on their economic development. However it is also discredited and qualified as low value-added, rarely innovative, restricted to the ethnic communities and with stagnating growth potential. Following this debate, a new research stream affirms that immigrants should not be treated as one entity. Thus attention is shifting towards groups of immigrant entrepreneurs that were previously neglected in the literature. One such group consists of the second generation children of immigrants. Work to date provides ample investigation about immigrant entrepreneurs and their entrepreneurial process; however there is less research on similarities and differences in the entrepreneurial process experienced by first and second generation immigrant entrepreneurs. Despite some recent research on second generation immigrant entrepreneurs, this topic remains understudied. The objective of this study is to understand, from a multi-level perspective, how different generations of immigrant entrepreneurs experience the entrepreneurial process. Using a grounded theory approach and qualitative in-depth interviews, the findings indicate that first and second generation immigrant entrepreneurs experience the entrepreneurial process differently by facing different micro and macro level enablers and obstacles. They also recognize, evaluate and exploit opportunities differently. The extent to which they are embedded in specific environments affects their entrepreneurial experiences.

Thesis advisor: Eric Dearing / The education and successful integration of immigrant youth are imperative for the U.S. economy. Indeed, first- and second-generation immigrants are estimated to account for 93% of the nation’s working-age population growth over the next three decades (Pew, 2013). However, existing empirical work on postsecondary outcomes among immigrant youth mainly focuses on differences between pan-racial/ethnic categories, potentially masking within-group differences (e.g., ethnic/regional variations) arising from unique pre- and post-migration contexts and experiences. This dissertation aims to uncover heterogeneity within and between immigrant racial/ethnic groups’ trajectories in higher education. A special focus is placed on Asian immigrants, a pan-racial group that represented about 28% of the immigrant population in 2018 but comprised several distinct ethnic and regional groups with considerable variation in pre- and post-immigration experiences (Pew, 2018). The dissertation also helps advance current knowledge by simultaneously examining variations by ethnic/regional groups and generational statuses for Asian youth. Utilizing data from the High School Longitudinal Study 2009, the first part of the dissertation explores enrollment, attainment, and persistence differences among pan-racial/ethnic groups and, in turn, disaggregated analyses specifically for Asian ethnicities and regions. Second, the dissertation examines variations in postsecondary outcomes as a function of immigrant generation (i.e., first, second, or third generation, focusing on both within– and across–racial and ethnic group differences). For this second aim, variations within and between Asian ethnicities and regions are closely examined. The findings indicate that pan-racial/ethnic differences follow patterns previously highlighted in the literature; however, evidence of generational differences within and between groups in this study extends the existing literature. For example, there was evidence of generational advantages in educational outcomes for first- and second-generation youth compared with the third generation for Asian and Black youth. On the other hand, there was evidence of disadvantage among first-generation Latinx youth. The disaggregated analyses for Asian immigrants also revealed several important findings. For example, the second-generation advantage found at the pan-racial level for Asian immigrants persisted for Southeast Asians and partially for Chinese and South Asian immigrants. However, it disappeared for other Asian ethnic/regional groups for several outcomes. These findings have implications for the discourse around immigrants by challenging current pervasive pan-racial/ethnic narratives. In particular, for Asian immigrants, often stereotyped as the “Model Minority,” the immigration and assimilation process is not monolithic. Therefore, postsecondary outcomes reflect these complex and heterogeneous processes. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

The development of sexual agency in young women is essential. Adolescence can be a confusing time for many youths as they are forging their way into adulthood. This confusion can be especially difficult for second generation migrants (SGM), a group that are often faced with different cultural spheres when discussing sexual and reproductive health (SRH) topics. This exploratory retrospective study examined the relationship between their cultural affiliations, the sources of SRH provided to SGM girls during adolescence (10-17 years old) and their subsequent level of sexual agency (18-24 years old) as young adults. The sources examined were parents, siblings, friends/peers, teachers and the media. Sexual agency was measured using the Sexual Assertiveness Questionnaire (SAQ) and the Sexual Affect Scale. A small sample of 105 respondents participated in the online survey. The participants reported the media to be their highest-ranking source of actual SRH messages and friends/peers as their preferred source. SRH messages provided by parents and friends/peers were significantly negatively correlated with the overall sexual agency of the participants. The results also present the individual associations between the 14 statements for each of the sources and the sexual agency of the participants. Not being ready for sex was the most cited reason for abstinence and was significantly positively associated with sexual agency.

This thesis explores how second and 1.5-generation migrants of Peruvian origin living in Turin identify themselves. The results show that second and 1.5-generation migrants have complex and multi-identities. They see themselves as Italians, Peruvians, Turinese, citizens of the world and Latinos/as and are mostly categorized as Peruvians, Italians and foreigners. From the study emerged that place of birth and age at arrival are crucial variables that affect their self-identification, while phenotype and language play an essential role in their ascribed identity. Nevertheless, second and 1.5-generation migrants are challenging the mainstream and traditional idea of what it means to be Italian connected to appearance. Italian citizenship is not an essential factor that influences their identity, even though it has the function of validating a pre-existing identity. This study contributes to increasing the academic knowledge regarding the identity of a specific group of youth of migrant origin living in a defined place.

The aim of this thesis was to study the intergenerational socioeconomic mobility of second generation immigrant daughters in Germany, by measuring how the parents’ educational level affect their children’s education. By adding a gender equality index to the dataset, the aim was to create a more nuanced interpretation of the results, including how cultural views in the parents’ source country can affect the parental investments. The results imply that daughters seem to have a lower intergenerational mobility, in line with previous research. When interacting a gender equality index variable with the parents’ educational level the results suggested that a high educated father from a country with high gender equality will increase both his son’s and daughter’s educational attainment. On the other hand, a high educated mother from a country with high gender equality will instead decrease her son’s educational level. Furthermore, another interaction variable was generated to translate how the parents’ educational level affects second generation immigrant children but failed to produce estimates on a statistically significant level. Nonetheless, it is important to notice that the results implied that both sons and daughters have a lower educational level than their fathers, and that daughters have a lower educational attainment than their mothers. This suggests that second generation immigrant children do not outperform their parents, as previous research suggests.

[pt] A imigração voluntária de brasileiros em Portugal é um fenômeno que tem vindo a evoluir desde as décadas de 1980 e 1990, constituída por uma heterogeneidade de projetos e de motivações. A formação de casais biculturais lusobrasileiros faz parte do projeto migratório, originando a formação de famílias atravessadas por uma dupla referência cultural. Os filhos de casais luso-brasileiros em Portugal representam uma população jovem e pouco estudada, tornando-se pertinente compreender a transmissão geracional nesta população. Falar de transmissão geracional é pensar nas heranças psíquicas, conscientes e inconscientes subjacente à experiência temporal dos vínculos familiares. Neste sentido, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi estudar elementos da transmissão geracional em filhos de casais luso-brasileiros em Portugal. Para tanto, realizou-se uma pesquisa de campo, de natureza qualitativa, com a participação de 12 entrevistados, sete homens e cinco mulheres, entre os 18 e os 31 anos de idade, filhos de casais biculturais lusobrasileiros, cujos pais de origem brasileira migraram voluntariamente para Portugal. Os resultados apontaram para a constituição de um sistema familiar perpassado por estigmas familiares ligados à questão de gênero e de nacionalidade. A aceitação do casal conjugal pelas famílias de origem portuguesa deu-se em função do nascimento dos participantes, constatando-se que a história pregressa do casal parental e das famílias de origem pode ser integrada pelos filhos. Os estereótipos sociais contribuíram para a privatização das relações familiares, em que a transmissão da cultura brasileira ficou restringida à esfera privada. A transmissão geracional foi protagonizada, sobretudo pela figura da mulher, via articulação de práticas e de valores, conferindo-lhes um lugar de manutenção dos vínculos familiares. Concluímos que os vínculos familiares são percebidos como transmissores de um patrimônio cultural, traduzidos em memórias sensoriais e de valor afetivo e simbólico, contribuindo para a autonomia identitária e o pertencimento familiar, privilegiando os aspectos positivados de ambas as culturas. / [en] The voluntary immigration of Brazilians in Portugal is a phenomenon that has been evolving since the 1980s and 1990s, constituted by a heterogeneity of projects and motivations. The formation of bicultural Luso-Brazilian couples is part of the migratory project, originating the formation of families crossed by a double cultural reference. The children of Luso-Brazilian couples in Portugal represent a young and understudied population, making it pertinent to understand the generational transmission in this population. To speak of generational transmission is to think of the psychic, conscious and unconscious legacies underlying the temporal experience of family bonds. Therefore, the aim of this research was to study elements of generational transmission in children of Portuguese-Brazilian couples in Portugal. To this end, a qualitative field research was carried out, with the participation of 12 interviewees, seven men and five women, between 18 and 31 years old, children of Luso-Brazilian bicultural couples, whose parents of Brazilian origin voluntarily migrated to Portugal. The results pointed to the constitution of a family system permeated by family stigmas related to gender and nationality. The acceptance of the conjugal couple by the families of Portuguese origin was due to the birth of the participants, showing that the past history of the parental couple and of the families of origin can be integrated by their children. Social stereotypes contributed to the privatization of family relations, in which the transmission of Brazilian culture was restricted to the private sphere. The generational transmission was carried out, above all, by the figure of the woman, through the articulation of practices and values, giving them a place of maintenance of family bonds. We conclude that the family bonds are perceived as transmitters of a cultural heritage, translated into sensorial memories and affective and symbolic value, contributing to the identity autonomy and family belonging, privileging the positive aspects of both cultures.

Purpose- The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationships between space, non-whiteness, embodied experiences and related perceptions, establishing reality connections for the participants in this matter. One notion that collides with the unrestricted individuality of these subjects, who are perceived as being outsiders to the Swedish norm, is the concept of Othering. The general aim is to gain a deeper understanding about the complexities of these women's experiences as of them being perceived as Others. Originality/value- This research adds to previous research by focussing on the understanding of the self as crucial in processes of Othering and by highlighting how hegemonic discourses construct an imagined national identity. Further, the abstract concept and sensation of segregation, feeling Othered and experiencing boundaries while moving around in a city are complex phenomena that will be examined in relation to urban spaces. Design/methodology/approach- The research study scope was chosen to be qualitative research approach in order to explore and identify variables that cannot be measured easily, in this case experiences and emotions, since predetermined information and literature and relying on other studies did not seem sufficient for this topic. In an attempt to capture the interpersonal and embodied experiences taken up by daughters of immigrants who live in the urban landscape of Malmö, four in-depth individual interviews were conducted. Findings- The presented narratives reveal the richness of the mechanisms of exclusion through Othering as a continuous process regarding both their embodied experiences as well as interpersonal interactions. Being Othered as a daughter of immigrants, irrespective of belonging to a certain ethnic background, is not a unitary or one-dimensional experience but is rather a collectivity of cohesive experiences. These experiences furthermore are neither exclusively determined by embodied or interpersonal encounters, nor are they to be avoided through modifying their behaviour, which ultimately means that these young women are always subjects of stigmata, categorizations or assumptions about them.

The purpose of this study is to examine how young Afro-Swedes view their identity and sense of belonging in Swedish society, and whether they face challenges and how it affects their social inclusion. This is examined through eight semi-structured interviews with six women and two men who are all born and raised in Sweden. Furthermore, thematic analyses have been applied to the material. The two concepts that have been used to analyze and discuss the collected data is ethnicity and belonging. The results of this study indicates that young Afro-Swedes do not identify as Swedish mostly because society categorizes them as “immigrants”. There is a clear perception that Swedish people are all white, blond and blue eyed which they as black citizens do not fit into. Because of this, young Afro-Swedes have faced many challenges and some of them feel socially excluded. The challenges they have in common is racism and xenophobia which has negatively affected them in many ways. The result of this study also shows how social environment, skin color, religion, and residential area have a major impact on how Afro-Swedes choose to identify as well as their sense of belonging in Sweden.

This study examines what role, impact and relationship social media platforms have on second and third generation Chilean diaspora that are living in Sweden when traveling back to Chile. The study uses thematic analysis and 25 qualitative semi-structured interviews with second and third generation Chilean diaspora members, whose age is between 25 and 50 and who has traveled to Chile or are planning to travel there. Through the 25 interviews and the thematic analysis, three themes were identified which were push and pull factors, feelings when traveling back, and travel influenced by social media.  The findings from the study, showed that both second and third generation Chilean diaspora have been motivated by and through social media platforms to visit Chile. It has been found that the priorities of second- and third- generation Chilean diaspora while traveling back to the homeland are different. As social media allows individuals to stay in touch with relatives and friends, it can affect their decision to travel to Chile again. By watching their relatives via video calls, their willingness to go to the country can be greater, which means that the term Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) has a strong connection with diaspora tourism, and this has had a huge impact on the second-generation diaspora. For the third-generation diaspora, their priority to travel to Chile has been a mix of both VFR and exploring the country more. The findings from the study even indicate that UGCs (User Generated Contents) such as pictures or videos that are shared on Instagram, Facebook or YouTube introduces new destinations in Chile, which persuaded both generations of the Chilean diaspora to visit Chile. But this will persuade most of those third-generation participants that have for example did not visit their homeland but want to do it to get more knowledge about their roots, or those who always traveled to the same city but want to explore more.

Second-generation immigrant children in Sweden, especially those of non-European heritage, find themselves entangled in a web of social exclusion. Against the backdrop of escalating disparities between social strata, and a conspicuous failure in the integration of immigrants, the study explores this matter in depth. With a focus on Rapatac, a Swedish non-governmental organisation, the study delves into three critical dimensions: 1) the manifestations of social exclusion experienced by these children, 2) the interventions employed to combat these outcomes, and 3) the indicators that gauge the efficacy of these efforts. A qualitative methodology was employed, based on semi-structured interviews with Rapatac staff members, document analysis, and a thematic analysis. These laid bare four forms of social exclusion faced by second-generation immigrant children: educational disparities, psychological exclusion, neighbourhood exclusion, and the intricacies of normative integration. In response to these challenges, educational interventions, skill development initiatives, community engagement endeavours, and mentorship and support programmes collectively form Rapatac’s arsenal to counteract the consequences of social exclusion. Measuring the impact of these interventions revealed that the attendance records of both school and Rapatac, and academic performance, emerged as pivotal barometers of progress. Also, a surge in collaborations, funding, and volunteerism at both the organisational and individual levels testify to the recognition of Rapatac’s influence on numerous communities. Consequently, the study validates the relativity, agency, and dynamic nature inherent in social exclusion research.