In humans, protein-coding genes and most small nuclear (sn)RNA genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase II (pol II).The carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of the largest subunit of pol II possesses multiple heptapetide repeats of the consensus Tyr1-Ser2-Pro3-Thr4-Ser5-Pro6-Ser7. Phosphorylation of Ser2, Ser5 and Ser7 mediates the recruitment of transcription and RNA processing factors during the transcription cycle. There are notable differences between snRNA genes and protein-coding genes in terms of mechanisms controlling their expression. Pol II does not appear to make the transition to long-range productive elongation during transcription of snRNA genes, as happens during transcription of protein-coding genes. In addition, recognition of the snRNA gene-type specific 3' box RNA processing element requires initiation from an snRNA gene promoter. These characteristics may, at least in part, be driven by factors recruited to the promoter. Initiation of transcription of most human genes transcribed by pol II requires the formation of a preinitiation complex (PIC) comprising TFIIA, B, D, E, F and H and pol II. The general transcription factor, TFIID is composed of the TATA-binding protein and up to 13 TBP-associated factors (TAFs). Differences in the complement of TAFs might result in differential recruitment of elongation and RNA processing factors. It has already been shown that the promoters of some protein-coding genes do not recruit all the TAFs found in TFIID. Although TAF5, has been shown to be associated with pol II-transcribed snRNA genes, the full complement of TAFs associated with these genes remained unclear. Here I show, using a ChIP and siRNA-mediated knockdown approach, that the TBP/TAF complex on snRNA genes differs from that on protein-coding genes. Interestingly, the largest TAF, TAF1 and the core TAFs, TAF10 and TAF4 are not detected on snRNA genes. I propose that this snRNA gene-specific TAF subset plays a key role in gene-type-specific control of expression. In addition, in order to further understand the molecular mechanism underlying the differences between expression of protein-coding genes and snRNA genes, I have investigated the role of RNA pol II-associated protein 2 (RPAP2) in transcription of snRNA genes. Here I show that RPAP2 recognizes the phospho-Ser7 mark on the pol II CTD, siRNA mediated knockdown of RPAP2 causes defects in snRNA gene expression and that RPAP2 is a CTD Ser5 phosphatase. I also present my studies of the mechanism of inhibition of phospho-Ser2 by herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) protein ICP22. Phosphorylation of Ser2 by the positive transcription elongation factor (P-TEFb) is associated with productive transcriptional elongation. However, P-TEFb is not required for elongation of transcription of snRNA genes, but functions only to activate 3' box-directed RNA processing. In addition, there are conflicting data as to whether Cdk9 is acting as a Ser2 kinase during transcription of pol II-transcribed snRNA genes. As ICP22 is thought to inhibit P-TEFb, this protein could provide an alternative means to study P-TEFb function in expression of snRNA genes.

Les extrémités des chromosomes eucaryotes linéaires ont une structure nucléoprotéique particulière, et sont appelées télomères. Étant donnés leur structure et le mécanisme semi-conservatif de la réplication de l’ADN, la longueur des séquences télomériques est instable. Au fil des divisions cellulaires, les réplications successives de l’ADN entraînent une réduction progressive des séquences télomériques. Des télomères courts ne sont plus fonctionnels, ce qui entraîne l’arrêt du cycle cellulaire et de l’instabilité génomique. Il est donc essentiel de prévenir ce raccourcissement. Une enzyme spécialisée rallonge les télomères : la télomérase. La télomérase est une ribonucléoprotéine (RNP) qui maintient les télomères par un mécanisme d’ajout de répétitions de la séquence télomérique. Afin de former un complexe actif, les sous-unités protéiques de l’enzyme doivent s’assembler autour d’un ARN non-codant, nommé Tlc1 chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Cependant, le fait que la RNP nécessite plusieurs sous-unités pour son activité implique un assemblage précis et coordonné. Peu de données existent au sujet de l’assemblage de la RNP en un complexe actif, mais il semble qu’un trafic nucléo-cytoplasmique soit requis dans le cycle fonctionnel de l’enzyme. Caractériser le mécanisme d’assemblage de la télomérase permettra de mieux comprendre les phénomènes de régulation de l’activité de l’enzyme, et donc du maintien des télomères chez S. cerevisiae. À cette fin, j’ai d’abord vérifié l’état stoechiométrique de l’enzyme in vivo par des méthodes de FISH sur des molécules individuelles. J’ai ainsi pu montrer que la télomérase ne comportait qu’un seul ARN Tlc1. Ces données in vivo corrèlent avec des données publiées précédemment grâce à des techniques de biochimie, et suggèrent que l’enzyme n’est composée que de complexes individuels contenant une seule copie de chaque sous-unité protéique. Dans le but d’étudier les mécanismes d’assemblage de la télomérase, j’ai aussi développé un système de contrôle de la transcription d’une forme taguée de Tlc1. Cet outil génétique, basé sur les systèmes Cre-Lox et MS2-GFP, permet l’insertion d’un tag MS2 dans le gène TLC1. Ce tag donne la possibilité de suivre des ARN Tlc1 in vivo et en temps réel par microscopie confocale à spinning-disk. Ce système, baptisé CrEMGaT, a permis de montrer que l’insertion du tag dans le gène entraîne l’apparition de Tlc1-MS2, et que ces ARN forment des agrégats nucléaires ayant des caractéristiques similaires aux T-Recs précédemment caractérisés lors d’une collaboration avec le Pr Chartrand. De plus, des résultats préliminaires obtenus avec le CrEMGaT suggèrent que les ARN Tlc1-MS2 finissent leur cycle fonctionnel au cytoplasme. Dans l’ensemble, les données produites et l’outil développé au cours de cette thèse donnent une meilleure idée de l’état d’assemblage de la télomérase. / Abstract : In the eukaryotic kingdom, the extremities of the linear chromosomes have a particular nucleoproteic structure, and are called telomeres. Because of this structure and the semi-conservative nature of DNA replication, telomere length is unstable. DNA replications during consecutive cell divisions leads to a progressive shortening of telomeric sequences. Below a certain threshold, telomeres are not functional, triggering cell-cycle arrest and genomic instability. It is therefore essential to prevent this shortening. A specialized enzyme elongates telomeres: Telomerase. Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) that adds repeats of the telomeric sequence to the end of telomeres. The enzyme formation requires protein subunits to assemble onto a scaffolding ncRNA, Tlc1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The fact that several subunits are needed for RNP activity implies a precise and coordinated assembly occurs. However, data are lacking about telomerase assembly into an active complex, but different observations point towards a nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking requirement during the enzyme life-cycle. Characteristics about telomerase assembly mechanism would provide useful information in the quest for understanding the phenomena regulating the enzyme activity, and therefore telomere maintenance in S. cerevisiae. Engaged in this quest, I first verified telomerase stoichiometry in vivo. By quantitative single-molecule FISH, the results showed that the enzyme only contains one Tlc1 RNA per RNP in the cell. These in vivo data correlate with previous publications which, based on biochemical experiments, suggested single copies of the different subunits are present in the complex. Taken together, these findings are dismantling a previous dogma that stipulated telomerase is composed of two complexes, and suggest telomerase quaternary arrangement stays simple. Aiming to study telomerase assembly mechanisms, I also developed an inducible genetic system governing the transcription of a tagged version of Tlc1 (i.e. Tlc1-MS2). This system, based on the Cre-Lox and MS2-GFP systems, allows to control the insertion of a MS2 tag into the TLC1 gene. In this system, dubbed CrEMGaT, the genetic insertion is controllable and indeed leads to Tlc1-MS2 appearance. It is then possible to track these tagged RNAs in vivo and in real time with a spinning disk confocal microscope. Furthermore, these RNAs form nuclear aggregates with characteristics of the T-Recs previously described in a collaboration between our lab and Pr Chartrand’s. Finally, preliminary data obtained with the CrEMGaT suggest cytoplasm is the last cellular compartment visited by Tlc1-MS2 RNA. Overall, these data and the system developed during my thesis will give insights into telomerase assembly in vivo.

The concept of the gene has been constantly challenged by new discoveries in the life sciences. Recent challenging observations include the high frequency of alternative splicing events and the common transcription of non-protein-coding-RNAs (ncRNAs) from the genome. The latter has long been considered noise in biological systems. Multiple lines of evidence from genomic studies indicate that alternative splicing and ncRNA play important roles in expanding proteome diversity in eukaryotes. Here, the aim is to find the link between alternative splicing and ncRNAs by studying the expression profile of the spliceosomal snRNAs (U snRNA). Spliceosomal snRNAs are essential for pre-mRNA splicing in eukaryotes. They participate in splice site selection, recruitment of protein factors and catalyzing the splicing reaction. Because of this, both the abundance and diversity of U snRNAs were expected to be large. In our study we deeply analyzed the U snRNA population in primates using a combination of bioinformatical, biochemical and high throughput sequencing approaches. This transcriptome profiling has revealed that human, chimpanzee and rhesus have similar U snRNA populations, i.e. the vast majority of U snRNAs originate from few well-defined gene loci and the heterogeneity observed in U snRNA populations was largely due to the presence of SNPs at these loci. It seems that the gene loci that could potentially encode a significantly heterogeneous population of U snRNAs are mostly silent. Only few minority transcripts were detected in our study, and among them three U1-like snRNAs might play a role in the regulation of alternative splicing by recognizing non-canonical splicing sites. Mutations of U snRNA have been shown to impact the splicing process. Therefore, our study provides a reference to study the biological significance of SNPs in U snRNA genes and their association with diseases.

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as highly diverse and powerful key players in the cell, the range of capabilities spanning from catalyzing essential processes in all living organisms, e.g. protein synthesis, to being highly specific regulators of gene expression. To fully understand the functional significance of ncRNAs, it is of critical importance to identify and characterize the repertoire of ncRNAs in the cell. Practically every genome-wide screen to identify ncRNAs has revealed large numbers of expressed ncRNAs and often identified species-specific ncRNA families of unknown function. Recent years' advancement in high-throughput sequencing techniques necessitates efficient and reliable methods for computational identification and annotation of genes. A major aim in the work underlying this thesis has been to develop and use computational tools for the identification and characterization of ncRNA genes. We used computational approaches in combination with experimental methods to study the ncRNA repertoire of the model organism Dictyostelium discoideum. We report ncRNA genes belonging to well-characterized gene families as well as previously unknown and potentially species-specific ncRNA families. The complicated task of de novo ncRNA gene prediction was successfully addressed by developing a method for nucleotide composition-based gene prediction using maximal-scoring partial sums and considering overlapping dinucleotides. We also report a substantial heterogeneity among human spliceosomal snRNAs. Northern blot analysis and cDNA cloning, as well as bioinformatical analysis of publicly available microarray data, revealed a large number of expressed snRNAs. In particular, U1 snRNA variants with several nucleotide substitutions that could potentially have dramatic effects on splice site recognition were identified. In conclusion, we have by using computational approaches combined with experimental analysis identified a rich and diverse ncRNA repertoire in the eukaryotes D. discoideum and Homo sapiens. The surprising diversity among the snRNAs in H. sapiens suggests a functional involvement in recognition of non-canonical introns and regulation of messenger RNA splicing.

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Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:23:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2005-02-24Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:29:39Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 ambrosio_dl_me_arafcf.pdf: 2442154 bytes, checksum: cc3386b51bef3a73071ee6043f88fc0e (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / Alguns fatores importantes no funcionamento das células eucarióticas correspondem à pequenos complexos de RNA e proteínas; essas partículas de ribonucleoproteínas (UsnRNPs) têm um papel essencial no processamento do pré-mRNA, principalmente durante o splicing (corte de íntrons e união de éxons). Embora as snRNPs estejam definidas em mamíferos, ainda não estão bem caracterizadas em certos tripanosomatídeos como o Trypanosoma cruzi. Assim, este trabalho propôs a caracterização molecular dos snRNAs (U2, U4, U5 e U6), por PCR e RT-PCR de formas epimastigotas de T. cruzi (cepa Y). Essas seqüências amplificadas foram clonadas, seqüenciadas e comparadas entre os tripanosomatídeos e o alinhamento múltiplo apresentou mais de 70% de identidade, exceto da U5 snRNA, que se mostrou menos conservada. Árvores filogenéticas mostraram a proximidade evolutiva dos snRNAs analisados em Trypanosoma brucei e Trypanosoma cruzi. As respectivas estruturas secundárias foram preditas, confirmando-se também as semelhanças com aquelas de T. brucei. O alinhamento das snRNAs de T. cruzi com as seqüências de Homo sapiens mostrou regiões únicas em U2, U4 e U5 snRNAs, nessa espécie, enquanto U6 mostrou-se fortemente conservada. Até o momento, ainda não foi possível a obtenção da seqüência completa de U1 snRNA de T. cruzi. / Some important factors in functioning of the eucariotic cells are the small complexes of RNA and proteins; these particles of ribonucleoproteins (UsnRNPs) have an essential role in the pre-mRNA processing, mainly during splicing (cut of introns and union of exons). Even though they are well defined in mammals, snRNPs are still not characterized in certain Trypanosomatids, as well, Trypanosoma cruzi. So, this work proposed the molecular characterization of the snRNAs (U2, U4, U5 and U6), by PCR and RT-PCR with T. cruzi epimastigote forms (Y strain). These amplified sequences were cloned, sequenced and compared among the Trypanosomatids and the multiple alignment presented more than 70% of identity, except for U5 snRNA, which showed less conserved. Phylogenetic trees showed the evolutionary proximity between the Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi snRNAs analysed. The respective secondary structures were predicted and also confirmed similarity with T. brucei. The alignment of T. cruzi snRNAs with Homo sapiens sequences showed unique regions in U2, U4 and U5 snRNAs in this species, while U6 was strongly conserved. Until this moment, it was not still possible to obtain U1 snRNA of T. cruzi complete sequence.

Orientador: Regina Maria Barretto Cicarelli / Banca: Marcia Aparecida Silva Graminha / Banca: Lucile Maria Floeter-Winter / Resumo: Alguns fatores importantes no funcionamento das células eucarióticas correspondem à pequenos complexos de RNA e proteínas; essas partículas de ribonucleoproteínas (UsnRNPs) têm um papel essencial no processamento do pré-mRNA, principalmente durante o splicing (corte de íntrons e união de éxons). Embora as snRNPs estejam definidas em mamíferos, ainda não estão bem caracterizadas em certos tripanosomatídeos como o Trypanosoma cruzi. Assim, este trabalho propôs a caracterização molecular dos snRNAs (U2, U4, U5 e U6), por PCR e RT-PCR de formas epimastigotas de T. cruzi (cepa Y). Essas seqüências amplificadas foram clonadas, seqüenciadas e comparadas entre os tripanosomatídeos e o alinhamento múltiplo apresentou mais de 70% de identidade, exceto da U5 snRNA, que se mostrou menos conservada. Árvores filogenéticas mostraram a proximidade evolutiva dos snRNAs analisados em Trypanosoma brucei e Trypanosoma cruzi. As respectivas estruturas secundárias foram preditas, confirmando-se também as semelhanças com aquelas de T. brucei. O alinhamento das snRNAs de T. cruzi com as seqüências de Homo sapiens mostrou regiões únicas em U2, U4 e U5 snRNAs, nessa espécie, enquanto U6 mostrou-se fortemente conservada. Até o momento, ainda não foi possível a obtenção da seqüência completa de U1 snRNA de T. cruzi. / Abstract: Some important factors in functioning of the eucariotic cells are the small complexes of RNA and proteins; these particles of ribonucleoproteins (UsnRNPs) have an essential role in the pre-mRNA processing, mainly during splicing (cut of introns and union of exons). Even though they are well defined in mammals, snRNPs are still not characterized in certain Trypanosomatids, as well, Trypanosoma cruzi. So, this work proposed the molecular characterization of the snRNAs (U2, U4, U5 and U6), by PCR and RT-PCR with T. cruzi epimastigote forms (Y strain). These amplified sequences were cloned, sequenced and compared among the Trypanosomatids and the multiple alignment presented more than 70% of identity, except for U5 snRNA, which showed less conserved. Phylogenetic trees showed the evolutionary proximity between the Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi snRNAs analysed. The respective secondary structures were predicted and also confirmed similarity with T. brucei. The alignment of T. cruzi snRNAs with Homo sapiens sequences showed unique regions in U2, U4 and U5 snRNAs in this species, while U6 was strongly conserved. Until this moment, it was not still possible to obtain U1 snRNA of T. cruzi complete sequence. / Mestre

(English) snRNPs are key components of the spliceosome. During their life, they are found in the cytoplasm and also in the nucleus, where carry out their function. There are five major snRNPs named according to RNA they contain U1, U2, U4, U5 and U6. Each snRNP consists from RNA, ring of seven Sm or LSm proteins and additional proteins specific for each snRNP. Their biogenesis starts in the nucleus, where they are transcribed. Then they are transported into the cytoplasm. During their cytoplasmic phase, the SMN complex forms the Sm ring around the specific sequence on snRNA and cap is trimethylated. These two modifications are the signals for reimport of snRNA into the nucleus, where they accumulate in the nuclear structures called Cajal bodies (CBs), where the final maturation steps occur. There are several quality control points during snRNP biogenesis that ensure that only fully assembled particles reach the spliceosome. The first checkpoint is in the nucleus immediately after the transcription, when the export complex is formed. The second checkpoint is in the cytoplasm and proofreads Sm ring assembly. If the Sm ring formation fails, the defective snRNPs are degraded in the cytoplasm by Xrn1 exonuclease. However, it is still unclear, how the cell distinguishes between normal and defective...

The 7SK small nuclear RNA (snRNA) is a key player in the regulation of polymerase (pol) II transcription. The 7SK RNA was long believed to be specific to vertebrates where it is highly conserved. Homologs in basal deuterostomes and a few lophotrochozoan species were only recently reported. On longer timescales, 7SK evolves rapidly with only few conserved sequence and structure motifs. Previous attempts to identify the Drosophila homolog thus have remained unsuccessful despite considerable efforts. Here we report on the discovery of arthropod 7SK RNAs using a novel search strategy based on pol III promoters, as well as the subsequent verification of its expression. Our results demonstrate that a 7SK snRNA featuring 2 highly structured conserved domains was present already in the bilaterian ancestor.

(English) snRNPs are key components of the spliceosome. During their life, they are found in the cytoplasm and also in the nucleus, where carry out their function. There are five major snRNPs named according to RNA they contain U1, U2, U4, U5 and U6. Each snRNP consists from RNA, ring of seven Sm or LSm proteins and additional proteins specific for each snRNP. Their biogenesis starts in the nucleus, where they are transcribed. Then they are transported into the cytoplasm. During their cytoplasmic phase, the SMN complex forms the Sm ring around the specific sequence on snRNA and cap is trimethylated. These two modifications are the signals for reimport of snRNA into the nucleus, where they accumulate in the nuclear structures called Cajal bodies (CBs), where the final maturation steps occur. There are several quality control points during snRNP biogenesis that ensure that only fully assembled particles reach the spliceosome. The first checkpoint is in the nucleus immediately after the transcription, when the export complex is formed. The second checkpoint is in the cytoplasm and proofreads Sm ring assembly. If the Sm ring formation fails, the defective snRNPs are degraded in the cytoplasm by Xrn1 exonuclease. However, it is still unclear, how the cell distinguishes between normal and defective...