A pesquisa se caracteriza como pesquisa-ação. A análise e discussão de dados ocorre em três fases: fase exploratória, principal e avaliação/validação. O campo do estudo é uma indústria do setor calçadista do Rio Grande do Sul. Partindo do pressuposto que as indústrias calçadistas brasileiras, ao longo da sua história, têm adotado o sistema taylorista como principal modo de produção e, identificando que há necessidade de transformações do projeto de trabalho, considerando os altos índices de absenteísmo, custos humanos e de processo, pretende-se quebrar paradigmas ao introduzir, no setor, características mais flexíveis no projeto de trabalho. A partir da análise do sistema de produção vigente no cluster calçadista do Rio Grande do Sul, esta pesquisa tem o objetivo centrado em propor melhorias no sistema de trabalho que contemplem as questões sociotécnicas, considerando os quatro subsistemas do sistema sociotécnico: subsistema pessoal, subsistema tecnológico, o projeto do sistema de trabalho e o ambiente externo. Os resultados da fase exploratória indicaram necessidade de intervenção em duas questões: a implantação da multifuncionalidade como meio de flexibilização do processo produtivo e mudanças na jornada de trabalho que iniciava ainda de madrugada. Os resultados da implantação da nova jornada e da multifuncionalidade associada à alternância postural estão indicando diminuição dos custos humanos (acidentes de trabalho, distúrbios ocupacionais e absenteísmo), maior grau de autonomia dos trabalhadores e, maior flexibilização do processo produtivo para atender as demandas de mercado. Ocorreu incremento na satisfação das pessoas em relação ao trabalho, maior comprometimento com os resultados e rumos da empresa e, conseqüente satisfação com o trabalho e melhorias na saúde e qualidade de vida. Em termos de dificuldades, encontrou-se a resistência dos trabalhadores do segundo escalão (coordenadores de setor e gerências) em quebrar paradigmas ao adotar um novo sistema de gestão, dificultando os resultados em termos de indicadores de produção. / This research is characterised as action research. The analysis and data discussion occurs in three stages: exploratory, principal and evaluation/validation. The study field is a shoe industry in Rio Grande do Sul. From the presupposition that Brazilian shoe industries, during their history, have adopted the Taylorist system as main way of production and, identifying that there is a need for work project transformations, considering the high rates of absenteeism, human and process costs, it is intended to break paradigms when introducing, in the sector, more flexible characteristics in the work project. From the analysis of the current production system in the shoe cluster in Rio Grande do Sul, this research has the aim focused on proposing improvements in the work system which consider the sociotechnical issues, considering the four subsystems of the sociotechnical system: personal subsystem, technological subsystem, work system project, and external environment. The exploratory stage results indicated intervention necessity in two issues: the multifunctionality implementation as a way for productive process flexibilisation and changings in the working hours which used to begun at dawn. The results of the new schedule implementation and the multifunctionality associated to posture alternation are indicating a decreasing in the human costs (job accident, occupational disorder and absenteeism) major degree of workers autonomy and, major flexibilisation of the productive process to supply the market demand. It occurred an increasing of people satisfaction related to work, major engagement with the results and company direction and, consequent satisfaction with the work and improvements in health and life quality. In terms of difficulties, it was found a resistance of the second scale workers ( section coordinators and management) to break paradigms when adopting a new management system, difficulting the results in terms of production indicators.

A pesquisa se caracteriza como pesquisa-ação. A análise e discussão de dados ocorre em três fases: fase exploratória, principal e avaliação/validação. O campo do estudo é uma indústria do setor calçadista do Rio Grande do Sul. Partindo do pressuposto que as indústrias calçadistas brasileiras, ao longo da sua história, têm adotado o sistema taylorista como principal modo de produção e, identificando que há necessidade de transformações do projeto de trabalho, considerando os altos índices de absenteísmo, custos humanos e de processo, pretende-se quebrar paradigmas ao introduzir, no setor, características mais flexíveis no projeto de trabalho. A partir da análise do sistema de produção vigente no cluster calçadista do Rio Grande do Sul, esta pesquisa tem o objetivo centrado em propor melhorias no sistema de trabalho que contemplem as questões sociotécnicas, considerando os quatro subsistemas do sistema sociotécnico: subsistema pessoal, subsistema tecnológico, o projeto do sistema de trabalho e o ambiente externo. Os resultados da fase exploratória indicaram necessidade de intervenção em duas questões: a implantação da multifuncionalidade como meio de flexibilização do processo produtivo e mudanças na jornada de trabalho que iniciava ainda de madrugada. Os resultados da implantação da nova jornada e da multifuncionalidade associada à alternância postural estão indicando diminuição dos custos humanos (acidentes de trabalho, distúrbios ocupacionais e absenteísmo), maior grau de autonomia dos trabalhadores e, maior flexibilização do processo produtivo para atender as demandas de mercado. Ocorreu incremento na satisfação das pessoas em relação ao trabalho, maior comprometimento com os resultados e rumos da empresa e, conseqüente satisfação com o trabalho e melhorias na saúde e qualidade de vida. Em termos de dificuldades, encontrou-se a resistência dos trabalhadores do segundo escalão (coordenadores de setor e gerências) em quebrar paradigmas ao adotar um novo sistema de gestão, dificultando os resultados em termos de indicadores de produção. / This research is characterised as action research. The analysis and data discussion occurs in three stages: exploratory, principal and evaluation/validation. The study field is a shoe industry in Rio Grande do Sul. From the presupposition that Brazilian shoe industries, during their history, have adopted the Taylorist system as main way of production and, identifying that there is a need for work project transformations, considering the high rates of absenteeism, human and process costs, it is intended to break paradigms when introducing, in the sector, more flexible characteristics in the work project. From the analysis of the current production system in the shoe cluster in Rio Grande do Sul, this research has the aim focused on proposing improvements in the work system which consider the sociotechnical issues, considering the four subsystems of the sociotechnical system: personal subsystem, technological subsystem, work system project, and external environment. The exploratory stage results indicated intervention necessity in two issues: the multifunctionality implementation as a way for productive process flexibilisation and changings in the working hours which used to begun at dawn. The results of the new schedule implementation and the multifunctionality associated to posture alternation are indicating a decreasing in the human costs (job accident, occupational disorder and absenteeism) major degree of workers autonomy and, major flexibilisation of the productive process to supply the market demand. It occurred an increasing of people satisfaction related to work, major engagement with the results and company direction and, consequent satisfaction with the work and improvements in health and life quality. In terms of difficulties, it was found a resistance of the second scale workers ( section coordinators and management) to break paradigms when adopting a new management system, difficulting the results in terms of production indicators.

A pesquisa se caracteriza como pesquisa-ação. A análise e discussão de dados ocorre em três fases: fase exploratória, principal e avaliação/validação. O campo do estudo é uma indústria do setor calçadista do Rio Grande do Sul. Partindo do pressuposto que as indústrias calçadistas brasileiras, ao longo da sua história, têm adotado o sistema taylorista como principal modo de produção e, identificando que há necessidade de transformações do projeto de trabalho, considerando os altos índices de absenteísmo, custos humanos e de processo, pretende-se quebrar paradigmas ao introduzir, no setor, características mais flexíveis no projeto de trabalho. A partir da análise do sistema de produção vigente no cluster calçadista do Rio Grande do Sul, esta pesquisa tem o objetivo centrado em propor melhorias no sistema de trabalho que contemplem as questões sociotécnicas, considerando os quatro subsistemas do sistema sociotécnico: subsistema pessoal, subsistema tecnológico, o projeto do sistema de trabalho e o ambiente externo. Os resultados da fase exploratória indicaram necessidade de intervenção em duas questões: a implantação da multifuncionalidade como meio de flexibilização do processo produtivo e mudanças na jornada de trabalho que iniciava ainda de madrugada. Os resultados da implantação da nova jornada e da multifuncionalidade associada à alternância postural estão indicando diminuição dos custos humanos (acidentes de trabalho, distúrbios ocupacionais e absenteísmo), maior grau de autonomia dos trabalhadores e, maior flexibilização do processo produtivo para atender as demandas de mercado. Ocorreu incremento na satisfação das pessoas em relação ao trabalho, maior comprometimento com os resultados e rumos da empresa e, conseqüente satisfação com o trabalho e melhorias na saúde e qualidade de vida. Em termos de dificuldades, encontrou-se a resistência dos trabalhadores do segundo escalão (coordenadores de setor e gerências) em quebrar paradigmas ao adotar um novo sistema de gestão, dificultando os resultados em termos de indicadores de produção. / This research is characterised as action research. The analysis and data discussion occurs in three stages: exploratory, principal and evaluation/validation. The study field is a shoe industry in Rio Grande do Sul. From the presupposition that Brazilian shoe industries, during their history, have adopted the Taylorist system as main way of production and, identifying that there is a need for work project transformations, considering the high rates of absenteeism, human and process costs, it is intended to break paradigms when introducing, in the sector, more flexible characteristics in the work project. From the analysis of the current production system in the shoe cluster in Rio Grande do Sul, this research has the aim focused on proposing improvements in the work system which consider the sociotechnical issues, considering the four subsystems of the sociotechnical system: personal subsystem, technological subsystem, work system project, and external environment. The exploratory stage results indicated intervention necessity in two issues: the multifunctionality implementation as a way for productive process flexibilisation and changings in the working hours which used to begun at dawn. The results of the new schedule implementation and the multifunctionality associated to posture alternation are indicating a decreasing in the human costs (job accident, occupational disorder and absenteeism) major degree of workers autonomy and, major flexibilisation of the productive process to supply the market demand. It occurred an increasing of people satisfaction related to work, major engagement with the results and company direction and, consequent satisfaction with the work and improvements in health and life quality. In terms of difficulties, it was found a resistance of the second scale workers ( section coordinators and management) to break paradigms when adopting a new management system, difficulting the results in terms of production indicators.

O Serviço de Atendimento Móvel de Urgência (SAMU) é o responsável pelo atendimento préhospitalar (APH) realizado no Brasil que é aquele que se desloca para atender as vítimas em casos de urgência-emergência, funciona através de uma rede telefônica e pode ser caracterizado como um sistema complexo por envolver as centrais de regulação e as bases com as ambulâncias. Essa dissertação é formada por dois artigos que versam sobre o SAMU. No primeiro deles o objetivo foi mapear as influências do ambiente externo do SAMU metropolitano de Porto Alegre sob a ótica dos sistemas sociotécnicos. Para tal foi utilizada a análise macroergonômica do trabalho – AMT (GUIMARÃES, 2010) que tornou possível o entendimento da influência do ambiente externo no atendimento da população. Foi destacada na pesquisa a falta de conhecimento da população quanto ao funcionamento do SAMU, o elevado número de trotes, a falta de integração entre os serviços públicos, entre outros. Além disso, dentro da macroergonomia, a percepção dos fatores de riscos a que estão submetidos os trabalhadores é fundamental para que durante o atendimento realizado à população não haja dúvida quanto aos procedimentos seguros a serem adotados, para se evitar que possa ocorrer algum acidente. No segundo artigo foi realizada uma pesquisa identificando a percepção dos trabalhadores quanto aos fatores de risco. Identificou-se que os fatores de riscos como levantamento de peso, esforço físico intenso, calor e contaminação biológica por fluidos corpóreos dos pacientes foram os mais significativos na percepção dos trabalhadores do SAMU. / The Mobile Emergency Service (SAMU) is the responsible for the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) in Brazil. The EMS system is that move to take care of the victims in urgencyemergency cases, it works through a telephonic net and can be characterized by a complex system that involving the central offices of regulation and the bases with the ambulances. This dissertation consists of two articles that focus on the SAMU. In the first article, the objective of the study was to analyze the influences of the external environment of the SAMU of the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre under the optics of the sociotechnical systems. In this study the method of analysis was the Macroergonomic Work Analysis – MWA (GUIMARÂES, 2010) that it made possible to understand the influence of the external environment in the attendance of the population. It was identified in the research: the lack of knowledge of the population on the functioning of the SAMU, the raised number of hoax, the lack of integration between the public services, among others. Besides, in the macroergonomics, the perception of the hazards for the workers is fundamental. Since during the emergency medical service for the population it must not have doubt on the safe procedures to be adopted, to prevent that some accident can occur. Therefore in the second article, a research was carried out to identify the perception of the workers on the hazards. It was identified that the hazards as weight lift, intense physical effort, heat and biological contamination for corporeal fluids of the patients had been those most significant in the perception of the workers of the SAMU.

O Serviço de Atendimento Móvel de Urgência (SAMU) é o responsável pelo atendimento préhospitalar (APH) realizado no Brasil que é aquele que se desloca para atender as vítimas em casos de urgência-emergência, funciona através de uma rede telefônica e pode ser caracterizado como um sistema complexo por envolver as centrais de regulação e as bases com as ambulâncias. Essa dissertação é formada por dois artigos que versam sobre o SAMU. No primeiro deles o objetivo foi mapear as influências do ambiente externo do SAMU metropolitano de Porto Alegre sob a ótica dos sistemas sociotécnicos. Para tal foi utilizada a análise macroergonômica do trabalho – AMT (GUIMARÃES, 2010) que tornou possível o entendimento da influência do ambiente externo no atendimento da população. Foi destacada na pesquisa a falta de conhecimento da população quanto ao funcionamento do SAMU, o elevado número de trotes, a falta de integração entre os serviços públicos, entre outros. Além disso, dentro da macroergonomia, a percepção dos fatores de riscos a que estão submetidos os trabalhadores é fundamental para que durante o atendimento realizado à população não haja dúvida quanto aos procedimentos seguros a serem adotados, para se evitar que possa ocorrer algum acidente. No segundo artigo foi realizada uma pesquisa identificando a percepção dos trabalhadores quanto aos fatores de risco. Identificou-se que os fatores de riscos como levantamento de peso, esforço físico intenso, calor e contaminação biológica por fluidos corpóreos dos pacientes foram os mais significativos na percepção dos trabalhadores do SAMU. / The Mobile Emergency Service (SAMU) is the responsible for the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) in Brazil. The EMS system is that move to take care of the victims in urgencyemergency cases, it works through a telephonic net and can be characterized by a complex system that involving the central offices of regulation and the bases with the ambulances. This dissertation consists of two articles that focus on the SAMU. In the first article, the objective of the study was to analyze the influences of the external environment of the SAMU of the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre under the optics of the sociotechnical systems. In this study the method of analysis was the Macroergonomic Work Analysis – MWA (GUIMARÂES, 2010) that it made possible to understand the influence of the external environment in the attendance of the population. It was identified in the research: the lack of knowledge of the population on the functioning of the SAMU, the raised number of hoax, the lack of integration between the public services, among others. Besides, in the macroergonomics, the perception of the hazards for the workers is fundamental. Since during the emergency medical service for the population it must not have doubt on the safe procedures to be adopted, to prevent that some accident can occur. Therefore in the second article, a research was carried out to identify the perception of the workers on the hazards. It was identified that the hazards as weight lift, intense physical effort, heat and biological contamination for corporeal fluids of the patients had been those most significant in the perception of the workers of the SAMU.

O Serviço de Atendimento Móvel de Urgência (SAMU) é o responsável pelo atendimento préhospitalar (APH) realizado no Brasil que é aquele que se desloca para atender as vítimas em casos de urgência-emergência, funciona através de uma rede telefônica e pode ser caracterizado como um sistema complexo por envolver as centrais de regulação e as bases com as ambulâncias. Essa dissertação é formada por dois artigos que versam sobre o SAMU. No primeiro deles o objetivo foi mapear as influências do ambiente externo do SAMU metropolitano de Porto Alegre sob a ótica dos sistemas sociotécnicos. Para tal foi utilizada a análise macroergonômica do trabalho – AMT (GUIMARÃES, 2010) que tornou possível o entendimento da influência do ambiente externo no atendimento da população. Foi destacada na pesquisa a falta de conhecimento da população quanto ao funcionamento do SAMU, o elevado número de trotes, a falta de integração entre os serviços públicos, entre outros. Além disso, dentro da macroergonomia, a percepção dos fatores de riscos a que estão submetidos os trabalhadores é fundamental para que durante o atendimento realizado à população não haja dúvida quanto aos procedimentos seguros a serem adotados, para se evitar que possa ocorrer algum acidente. No segundo artigo foi realizada uma pesquisa identificando a percepção dos trabalhadores quanto aos fatores de risco. Identificou-se que os fatores de riscos como levantamento de peso, esforço físico intenso, calor e contaminação biológica por fluidos corpóreos dos pacientes foram os mais significativos na percepção dos trabalhadores do SAMU. / The Mobile Emergency Service (SAMU) is the responsible for the Emergency Medical Services (EMS) in Brazil. The EMS system is that move to take care of the victims in urgencyemergency cases, it works through a telephonic net and can be characterized by a complex system that involving the central offices of regulation and the bases with the ambulances. This dissertation consists of two articles that focus on the SAMU. In the first article, the objective of the study was to analyze the influences of the external environment of the SAMU of the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre under the optics of the sociotechnical systems. In this study the method of analysis was the Macroergonomic Work Analysis – MWA (GUIMARÂES, 2010) that it made possible to understand the influence of the external environment in the attendance of the population. It was identified in the research: the lack of knowledge of the population on the functioning of the SAMU, the raised number of hoax, the lack of integration between the public services, among others. Besides, in the macroergonomics, the perception of the hazards for the workers is fundamental. Since during the emergency medical service for the population it must not have doubt on the safe procedures to be adopted, to prevent that some accident can occur. Therefore in the second article, a research was carried out to identify the perception of the workers on the hazards. It was identified that the hazards as weight lift, intense physical effort, heat and biological contamination for corporeal fluids of the patients had been those most significant in the perception of the workers of the SAMU.

Carlsberg desires to increase the traceability of their goods and this can be achieved with a tracking system. Therefore, this research aimed to create a model suitable to use when formulating a change strategy to implement a new technology in an organization. This model was then applied on Carlsberg to investigate how they should introduce a tracking system in their distribution system. The research was conducted in two phases, where the first phase included to create the suitable change model and to identify the current state in Carlsberg. This was achieved by collecting data from literature, observations and interviews. In phase two the model was applied to Carlsberg and thus, the change strategy to introduce a tracking system in Carlsberg was formulated. In this phase, data collection methods were literature and interviews with stakeholders and specialized consulting agencies in change management of IT systems. The research resulted in a model based on three questions that must be answered to create a change strategy; "What is the required change?", "How to build up the change process?" and "How will the change be measured?" In order to transform from the current state to the desired future, Carlsberg needs to introduce a tracking system with associated informational support, in the form of a website. This introduction results in changed work tasks and new features for truck drivers, administrative staff and collaboration partners. To succeed with this change, it is crucial that the stakeholders are willing to change. Carlsberg can increase the stakeholder’s willingness by a number of activities that have been identified in this research. Risks with the introduction of the tracking system have been identified and since this is a new system, start-up problems are likely to occur. These can be minimized through testing the system with a small group of truck drivers. Also, the introduction to the entire organization should then be done in one cross-dock at the time, partly to minimize the risk but also to be able to focus the resources. During and after the tracking system has been introduced in the organization, the change process needs to be measured in order to demonstrate that the desired improvements are met. Short-term measurements aim to motivate stakeholders for further implementation efforts and long-term measurements to consolidate the change in the organization. / Carlsberg vill öka spårbarheten på sina varor och detta kan uppnås med ett spårningssystem. Denna forskning har därför syftat till att skapa en modell lämplig för att använda vid utformningen av en förändringsstrategi ämnad till att införa en ny teknik i en organisation. Modell applicerades sedan på Carlsberg för att undersöka hur de ska införa ett spårningssystem i sitt distributionssystem. Forskningen genomfördes i två faser, där den första fasen inkluderade att skapa en lämplig modell för förändringsarbete och analysera den nuvarande situationen i Carlsberg. Detta uppnåddes genom att samla in information från litteratur, observationer och intervjuer. I fas två applicerades denna modell på Carlsberg och därmed formulerades förändringsstrategi för att införa ett spårningssystem i organisationen. I denna fas var metoder för datainsamling litteratur samt intervjuer med intressenter och specialiserade konsultbyråer i förändringsarbete av IT-system. Forskningen resulterade i en modell som bygger på tre frågor som måste besvaras för att skapa en förändringsstrategi; "Vilken förändring krävs?", "Hur ska förändringsprocessen utformas?" och "Hur kan förändringen mätas?" För att transformeras från det nuvarande läget till den önskade framtiden måste Carlsberg införa ett spårningssystem med tillhörande informationsstöd, i form av en hemsida. Införandet leder till förändrade arbetsuppgifter och nya funktioner för lastbilsförare, administrativ personal och samarbetspartners. För att lyckas med denna förändring, är det viktigt att de berörda parterna är villiga att förändras. Carlsberg kan öka intressenternas vilja genom en rad aktiviteter som har identifierats i denna forskning. Även risker med införandet av spårningssystemet har identifierats och eftersom detta är ett nytt system, kan uppstartsproblem förekomma. Dessa kan minimeras genom testning av systemet med en liten grupp av lastbilsförare. Dessutom bör införandet till hela organisationen sedan ske i en distributionslokal åt gången, dels för att minimera risken men också för att kunna fokusera resurserna. Under och efter spårningssystemet har införts i organisationen, behöver förändringsarbetet mätas för att visa att de önskade förbättringarna är uppfyllda. Kortsiktiga mätvärden syftar till att motivera intressenter för ytterligare förändringsarbete och långsiktiga mätvärden att befästa förändringen i organisationen.

Cette thèse aborde l’institutionnalisation du système socio-technique qui a permis la mobilité automobile entre 1920 et 1950 au Portugal, un pays qui au départ n’est pas producteur de véhicules automobiles et demeure périphérique technologiquement, par l’étude de deux aspects qui sont complémentaires : la régulation de la circulation des automobiles et l’adaptation des routes aux nouveaux véhicules motorisés. C’est une étude sur l’appropriation et la construction de ce système en fonction des actions menées par les usagers, les ingénieurs, les législateurs, les clubs automobiles, les services de voirie ou les organes de l’administration routière. Pendant la période analysée et malgré des taux de motorisation assez faibles, le système socio-technique est institutionnalisé et stabilisé, accompagnant et dialoguant avec la définition des standards internationaux et en créant des structures qui ont influencé le développement de ce système pendant la deuxième moitié du XXe siècle.La façon dont l’institutionnalisation du système a été menée à terme a non seulement permis une augmentation importante du transport routier commercial (au détriment du développement des chemins de fer), mais a aussi protégé une culture élitiste de l’usage des voitures particulières et le développement du tourisme automobile, visible dans la régulation de la circulation et dans la construction de routes touristiques avec des caractéristiques techniques et des budgets spéciaux. Elle a aussi permis le développement de l’ingénierie routière au Portugal avec la création d’un organe autonome d’administration routière et avec la formation de plusieurs ingénieurs qui ont construit une oeuvre que s’est approprié le discours de l’Estado Novo comme un symbole de sa réalisation et de sa modernité. Ces acteurs ont participé à l’élaboration de connaissances techniques ainsi qu’aux négociations de normes sociales et morales et à la construction de représentations au niveau des pratiques des usagers, des discours et de la matérialité de ce système. / This dissertation focuses on the institutionalization of the sociotechnical system, underlying automobility, in Portugal, from 1920 to 1950. By taking into consideration that the country was technologically peripheral and originally no automobiles were locally manufactured, this work developed along two complementary aspects: the regulation of automobile circulation and the adaptation of roads to the new vehicles. This is a study focusing on the appropriation and construction of this system through the interventions of users, engineers, legislators, automobile clubs, road services and administration. In the period under consideration, despite the low rates of motorization, the sociotechnical system institutionalized and stabilized, by following and discussing the definition of international standards and creating structures, which influenced the development of this system, during the second half of the nineteenth century.The way in which the institutionalization of the car system developed allowed not only an increase in commercial road transport in detriment of railways, but also protected an elitist culture regarding the use of private cars and the development of automobile tourism, as shown by circulation regulations and in the construction of tourism roads with special technical and budgetary characteristics. It also allowed the development of road engineering in Portugal, with the creation of an independent organ for road administration and the training of engineers whose works were appropriated by the rhetoric of the dictatorial regime known as New State (Estado Novo) as a symbol of its own accomplishments and modernity. All these actors participated in the construction of a technical discourse and in the negotiations of social and moral norms, as well as of representations at the level of the users’ practices, discourses and the materiality of the sociotechnical car system.Key-words: Sociotechnical system; automobile mobility, Portugal, Estado Novo, roads, motorists.

The study focuses on the Human Factors (HF) discipline and its role in improving aviation safety and efficiency within Air Traffic Control (ATC). The objective is to contribute to a better understanding of the ATC work domain and identify opportunities for improving performance, safety and efficiency. The research also aims to understand air traffic controllers' (ATCs) experience of the Mil i-ATC alarm system and propose enhancements to improve performance. Data collection was executed through observational research at a military air traffic control tower, and semi-structured interviews with ATCs, moreover, Work Domain Analysis and Thematic Analysis were employed for data analysis. The findings highlight key factors influencing ATC operational efficiency and safety, including communication, air traffic management, and alarm management, that is realized through social, technical and physical means. Moreover, workload, stress, situational awareness, teamwork, and decision-making were identified as interrelated elements within ATC. To enhance the Mil i-ATC alarm system, the study recommends considering alarm presentation, taking into account context and operational impact. Moreover, alarms without operational significance and false alarms are identified to cause frustration and undermine the reliability of the alarm system. Further research is necessary to determine the feasibility of presenting action plans directly in the system and how alarms should be listed. It is recommended that future studies focus on sustaining ATCs' motivation and alertness during monotonous tasks or low workload situations. Additionally, it is important to determine the appropriate level of automation in ATC management systems and evaluate controllers' trust in these systems.

La globalisation des marchés, la croissance rapide des pays émergents, le défi de la conception durable des produits et services et les besoins des population à bas revenu sont autant d'enjeux qui incitent les entreprises à chercher de nouvelles formes d'organisation et d'innovation y pour répondre. La théorie de la Base de la Pyramide (BoP) s'inscrit dans ce contexte actuel et propose de contribuer à la lutte contre la pauvreté tout en suivant une logique économique. Bien qu'elle soit relativement récente, la littérature sur cette thématique est multiple et s'inscrit aujourd'hui principalement en sciences de gestion et sciences économiques. Les apports dans le domaine de l'ingénierie sont encore assez peu nombreux et de multiples interrogations restent en suspens sur la faisabilité et l'opérationnalité d'une telle approche. L'objectif de ce travail de recherche est de comprendre en quoi les dynamiques d'innovation orientées Base de la Pyramide demandent de repenser les pratiques de conception actuelles, plus particulièrement l'ingénierie frugale. Ce procédé de conception, qui intègre des économies d'usage et de dépense, est exploré comme moyen de concevoir des produits et des services dans le double enjeu de lutte contre la pauvreté et de rentabilité économique. Nos contributions se situent sur deux axes. Le premier s'appuie sur une étude de 215 cas d'innovation BoP relatés dans la littérature pour proposer une catégorisation des stratégies appelées BoP. Cette catégorisation donne lieu à une lecture à multi-niveaux et permet de dégager des constats importants : la difficulté de combiner impact social et impact économique dans une même approche, la dichotomie marquée entre les stratégies de marché et les stratégies inclusives, ainsi que l'existence de multiples contextes BoP qui rend compte d'une tension entre l'assouvissement des besoins (impact local) et la recherche d'un changement d'échelle (impact global). Le deuxième axe de contribution porte sur la conception frugale, prise comme une approche possible orientée Base de la Pyramide. Nous définissons l'ingénierie frugale par la recherche du juste-suffisant entre la proposition d'une valeur essentielle et la recherche d'un bas coût. La proposition de nouveaux concepts, tels que les « Non Trade Off » (éléments non négociables) du processus de conception et l' « Adaptabilité » d'un produit, nous amène à interroger l'unicité de ce juste-suffisant. La valeur essentielle n'est pas un concept absolu et unique, mais se décline en une multitude de valeurs (re)définies par l'appropriation du produit lors de la conception, la fabrication et l'usage. Cette appropriation passe par des stratégies de focalisation sur des fonctionnalités essentielles, de façon à pouvoir répondre à un environnement pauvre en ressources et en infrastructures, réduire les coûts de production et d'assemblage et répondre à un besoin essentiel. La conception frugale s'inscrit alors dans une logique inclusive, où chaque partie prenante de la chaîne de valeur contribue à redéfinir le juste-suffisant d'un produit frugal en fonction du contexte. Ces résultats, issus de terrains empiriques en Inde et au Vietnam, permettent d'insister sur la prise en compte d'éléments de l'environnement contextuel dans la conception. Nous proposons de représenter ces éléments sous forme de Scènes, pour compléter les outils centrés-utilisateurs existants, et contextualiser la réflexion sur la valeur essentielle du produit. Pour conclure, de ces résultats émergent les prémisses d'un modèle ouvert de la conception frugale qui laisserait d'avantage de flexibilité aux populations de la Base de la Pyramide à s'approprier la valeur essentielle du produit conçu. Concevoir des produits ouverts, adaptables à la variabilité des contextes, permet ainsi d'œuvrer pour un développement plus durable. / Globalization of markets, rapid growth of emerging countries, challenges of a sustainable design and needs of low-income populations trigger companies to look for new forms of organization and innovation. The Base of the Pyramid (BoP) theory takes root on these challenges and suggests fighting against poverty while generating economic growth. Although recent, the literature on this topic is diverse and today falls mainly in management and economic sciences. The contributions in the field of engineering design are quite few, and many questions remain on the feasibility and operability of such an approach. The goal of this research is to understand how the dynamics of the BoP-oriented innovation may require rethinking current design practices. We will particularly explore frugal engineering, a design process that enrolls economy of use and expense, as a means to design products and services within the dual challenge of fighting against poverty and economic growth. Our contributions take place in two areas. The first one is based on a review of 215 BoP case-studies related in the literature: the outcome is a categorization of the BoP-called strategies. This categorization allows a multilevel reading that generates significant findings: the difficulty of combining social and economic impacts within the same approach, the dichotomy between market and inclusive strategies, as well as the existence of multiple BoP contexts which reflects a tension between needs' satisfaction (local impact) and economy of scale (global impact). The second area of contribution is about frugal design, taken as one possible BoP-oriented approach. We define frugal engineering as the search for a just-enough between a core value and a low-cost proposition. Our proposition of new concepts, such as the “Non Trade Off” during the design process and the “Adaptability” of the product, leads us to question the uniqueness of this just-enough. The core value is not an absolute concept; rather it comes in multiple values (re)defined during design, manufacturing and use phases of the product life cycle. This appropriation is made by focusing on key features of the product, in order to meet the environment, resource and infrastructure constrained, to reduce production and assembly costs, and to meet an essential need. Therefore, frugal design is incorporated in an inclusive logic, in which each stakeholder of the value chain contributes to redefine the just-enough of the product (and process). These results, obtained by empirical studies in India and Vietnam, emphasize the importance of contextual elements to take into account during frugal design. We propose the Scenes as a new tool for representing these elements. The Scenes complement the existing user-centered design tools, and help to contextualize the discussion on the core values of a frugal product. To conclude, the premises of an open frugal design emerge from this research. Such a model would leave more flexibility to the BoP users to appropriate themselves the product and define their essential values. Thus, designing open and adaptable products is a way to nourish a better sustainable development.