Indium gilt als eines der strategischen Metalle für die Technologiebranche. Durch das schnelle Wachstum bei Flachbildschirmen aller Art besteht seit Jahren eine stark wachsende Nachfrage nach Indium. Es wurde ein neuartiger Ansatz der Biolaugung gewählt und innerhalb des BHMZ getestet, Die aus der Biolaugung resultierende Lösung enthielt vereinfacht 1 mg·L-1 Indium sowie jeweils 1 g·L-1 Zink und Eisen. Durch systematische Untersuchung von zahlreichen hydrometallurgischen Methoden zur Metallabtrennung wurde eine auf Flüssig-Flüssig-Extraktion basierte Methode entworfen und erprobt. Der Prozess ermöglicht eine Indiumanreicherung bis zum Indiumhydroxid in einer Reinheit von 99,99 %. Die Chemikalienkosten für diesen Prozess belaufen sich gegenwärtig, bezogen auf den Labormaßstab, auf 189,40 €·kg-1 Indium. Diese liegen unter dem aktuellen Marktpreis von Indium. Die bisherigen Ergebnisse belegen, dass in der Realisierung dieses Verfahrens im technischen Maßstab erhebliches wirtschaftliches Potential steckt.

This project aimed to examine the separation of cobalt and nickel using solvent extraction (SX) with the extractant CYANEX 272 (C272). It was intended to investigate the Co-Ni separation in a sulphate-based leach solution in presence of other contaminants. This is an area of interest because of the difficulty of separating metals of similar properties within the field of hydrometallurgy.  Batch tests, with varying modifiers and diluents, were carried out to examine the effect of organic phase composition on phase separation. The effect of pH on equilibrium was investigated by constructing equilibrium curves. Through various shaking tests, different separation parameters were studied. McCabe-Thiele diagrams were constructed to predict design parameters. In order to simulate a continuous 3-stage countercurrent solvent extraction, batch tests were performed. Scrubbing, as means of impurity removal was also investigated. Finally, the product’s purity was examined by the help of crystallization.  The organic feed mixture that resulted in a sufficient phase separation consisted of C272, tributyl phosphate and naphtha. At pH 4, equilibrium curves showed that equilibrium was either not reached or affected by competing metal ions. A standard equilibrium curve appearance was seen at pH 4.5, resulting in that the theoretical required stages for extraction was calculated to 3 stages (A/O=1). However, a McCabe-Thiele diagram did not give an accurate representation of the more complex case (presence of contaminants). Batch simulation results gave a cobalt recovery of 69% and 100% at pH 4.5 and 4.8, and a nickel recovery of 0% and 3%, respectively. A recommended pH-value for solvent extraction could not be stated, because the choice must be based on operation specifications. Therefore, several different aspects (Co recovery, purity, and economical etc.), must be accounted for. A similar pH-trend was shown in scrubbing, where an increase of pH resulted in an increase of metal ions’ organic concentration. For stripping, acid test results proved 24 g/L sulphuric acid to give the highest cobalt concentration, with a marginal difference in concentration of impurities. An overview of the entire SX process, indicated that extraction, scrubbing, and stripping were all successful operations. The extraction stage showed a Co and Ni recovery of 99% and 0.02%, respectively, and a separation factor of 14250. Distribution results indicated that Al was difficult to remove and was transferred with Co into the product. Therefore, this element must be removed before SX. From noticing an increase of Co:Ni ratio throughout the process, solvent extraction was considered an effective separation method for cobalt and nickel separation. A considerably high purity of cobalt sulphate was produced. However, impurities Al and Ca were also detected in the product. Increasing the acetone volume in crystallization resulted in an increase of Co purity. An increase of the cobalt sulphate crystals formed was observed when increasing the acetone volume, where no impurities were detected.

[pt] O objetivo desta pesquisa foi a substituição de técnicas convencionais de extração de amostras para análise hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs) em amostras de tecido para um procedimento confiável, rápido e ambientalmente mais sustentáveis. O novo método foi desenvolvido usando um método de extração com solvente pressurizado, avaliando dois materiais de referência padrão (peixe e mexilhão) e amostras de sardinhas fortificadas (Sardinella sp.). Cinco procedimentos de extração diferentes foram avaliados e o melhor desempenho obtido foi pela extração de 1 g de tecido liofilizado em conjunto com 5 g de sílica desativada (5 por cento), mistura de diclorometano: metanol (4: 1 v / v), temperatura de 80 graus C, três ciclos, 10 min de tempo estático e 90 s de tempo de purga. Este método foi ainda validado pela análise de nove réplicas do material de referência número 2974a(Orgânicos em Tecido de Mexilhão Liofilizado) do National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST), resultando em uma recuperação média de 85 mais ou menos 14 por cento. As médias e as incertezas obtidos para cada HPA foram equivalentes aos do material de referência, corroborando a confiabilidade do método desenvolvido. Um tempo de processamento mais curto, menos uso de solventes e reagentes e menor manipulação do extrato resultou em um método eficaz e alinhado às diretrizes da química verde. / [en] The aim of this research was the replacement of conventional sample extraction techniques for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in tissue samples for a reliable, fast and environmentally more sustainable. The methodwas developed using a pressurized solvent extraction method and assessing two different standard reference materials (fish and mussel) and freeze-dried and fortified sardine samples (Sardinella sp.). Five different extraction procedures were evaluated and the best performance comprised 1 g of lyophilized tissue, 5 g of deactivated (5 percent) silica, a dichloromethane:methanol (4:1 v/v) mixture, a temperature of 80 C degrees, three cycles, 10 min of static time and 90 s of purge time. The method selected following these tests was further validated through the analysis of nine replicates of the National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST) reference material No. 2974a (Organics in Freeze-Dried Mussel Tissue), resulting in an effective recovery of 85 more or less 14 percent. The means and uncertainties attained for each PAH were equivalent to those of the reference material, corroborating the reliability of the developed method. A shorter processing time, less use of solvents and reagents and lower extract manipulation resulted in an effective method aligned with green-chemistry guidelines.

Denna studie undersöker effektiviteten hos Calamos nyligen utvecklade elektrolyt. Det är av stor betydelse att förstå hur denna nya elektrolyt, som är fosforfri och baserad på organiska syror, fungerar för att minska beroendet av ändliga resurser och därigenom främja en mer hållbar produktion. Projektets mål var att utveckla en enkel kvantitativ analysmetod för myrsyra, mjölksyra, glykolsyra och oxalsyra i den nya elektrolyten. Tekniken som användes för detektion och kvantifiering var gaskromatografi (GC) kopplad till en flamjoniseringsdetektor (FID). GC är begränsad till analyter som kan överföras till gasfasen utan att brytas ned termiskt. Ett sätt för att öka en förenings flyktighet, termiska stabilitet och kromatografiska beteende är genom en derivatiseringsreaktion. För bättre kromatografisk beteende derivatiserades karboxylsyror före GC-analys med N,O-bis-(trimetylsilyl)trifluoracetamid (BSTFA) som silyleringsreagens och dimetylformamid (DMF) som derivatiseringsmedium. Efter optimering validerades metoden och dess linjäriteten. Metoden har tillämpats för kvantitativ bestämning av karboxylsyror i elektrolyten, följt av lösningsmedelsextraktion med dietyleter. I detta arbete undersöktes även extraktionen av en karboxylsyra genom derivatisering med hjälp av dimetylkarbonat och natriummetoxid, vilket resulterade i bildandet av metylestrar som är relativt opolära och underlättar överföringen av karboxylsyror till den organiska fasen. Resultaten visade att båda teknikerna totalt sett inte verkar lämpliga för analys av karboxylsyror i elektrolyten. Dessutom utsaltningsextraktion av de karboxylsyrorna studerades också med användning av ett system bestående av butanon och ammoniumhydroxid. Resultaten indikerade att denna extraktionsmetod inte var effektiv för karboxylsyrorna. / This study examines the effectiveness of Calamo's newly developed electrolyte. It is of great importance to understand how this new electrolyte, which is phosphorus-free and based on organic acids, works to reduce dependence on finite resources and thereby promote more sustainable production. The project's goal was to develop a simple quantitative analysis method for formic acid, lactic acid, glycolic acid and oxalic acid in the new electrolyte. The technique used for detection and quantification was gas chromatography (GC) coupled to a flame ionization detector (FID). GC is limited to analytes that can be transferred to the gas phase without thermal degradation. One way to increase a compound's volatility, thermal stability and chromatographic behaviour is through a derivatization reaction. For better chromatographic behaviour, carboxylic acids were derivatized prior to GC analysis with N,O-bis-(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) as the silylation reagent and dimethylformamide (DMF) as the derivatization medium. After optimization, the method and its linearity were validated. The method was applied for quantitative determination of carboxylic acids in the electrolyte, followed by solvent extraction with diethyl ether. In this work, the extraction of a carboxylic acid by derivatization with dimethyl carbonate and sodium methoxide was also investigated, which resulted in the formation of methyl esters that are relatively non-polar and facilitate the transfer of carboxylic acids to the organic phase. The results showed that both techniques overall did not seem suitable for the analysis of carboxylic acids in the electrolyte. In addition, salting-out extraction of the carboxylic acids was also studied using a system consisting of butanone and ammonium hydroxide. The results indicated that this extraction method was not effective for the carboxylic acids.

Εξαιτίας των πολλών εφαρμογών του καδμίου στη βιομηχανία αλλά και των ταυτόχρονα τοξικών ιδιοτήτων του στα έμβια όντα, η απομάκρυνση του Cd(II) από υδατικά απόβλητα είναι σήμερα ένα ενδιαφέρον θέμα έρευνας στην Περιβαλλοντική Χημεία. Η υγρή εκχύλιση (εκχύλιση με διαλύτη) είναι μια αποτελεσματική μέθοδος για την απομάκρυνση του Cd(II) από διαλύματα που περιέχουν ιόντα χλωριδίων, θειικά ή φωσφορικά διαλύματα. Κατά την υγρή εκχύλιση το μεταλλοϊόν συμπλοκοποιείται με έναν οργανικό υποκαταστάτη σχηματίζοντας ένα χημικό είδος που μεταφέρεται από την υδατική στην οργανική φάση σε ένα διφασικό σύστημα. Αναφέρθηκε πρόσφατα ότι το κάδμιο(II) μπορεί να εκχυλιστεί από μέσα που περιέχουν ιόντα χλωριδίων ή ιόντα χλωριδίων/νιτρικών χρησιμοποιώντας δύο 2-πυρίδυλο κετονοξίμες, και συγκεκριμένα την 1-(2-πυριδυλο)-δεκατρια-1-όνη οξίμη (2PC12) και την 1-(2-πυριδυλο)-δεκαπεντε-1-όνη (2PC14), ως μέσα εκχύλισης. Ο στόχος αυτής της εργασίας είναι να μοντελοποιήσει την φύση των χημικών ειδών που σχηματίζονται κατα την διαδικασία της υγρής εκχύλισης του Cd(II) χρησιμοποιώντας 2-πυρίδυλο κετονοξίμες ως μέσα εκχύλισης. Έτσι μελετήσαμε τις αντιδράσεις διαφόρων πηγών Cd(II) με 2-πυρίδυλο οξίμες ως υποκαταστάτες (Σχήμα I). Οι υποκαταστάτες που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ήταν οι 2-πυριδίνη αλδοξίμη (paoH), μέθυλο 2-πυρίδυλο κετονοξίμη (mepaoH), φαίνυλο 2-πυρίδυλο κετονοξίμη (phpaoH) και πυριδινη-2-αμιδοξίμη (ampaoH). Η συστηματική συνθετική μας διερεύνηση οδήγησε στα προϊόντα [CdI2(paoH)2] (1), [Cd(NO3)2(paoH)2] (2), [Cd(NO3)(H2O)(paoH)2](NO3) (3), [Cd(paoH)3](ClO4)2 (4), [Cd(pao)2(paoH)2] (5), [CdI2(mepaoH)2] (6), [Cd(NO3)2(mepaoH)2] (7), [Cd(O2CMe)2(mepaoH)2] (8), [CdCl2(phpaoH)2] (9), [Cd4Br8(phpaoH)4]n (10), [CdI2(phpaoH)2] (11), [Cd(NO3)2(phpaoH)2] (12), [Cd2(Ο2CMe)4(phpaoH)2]n (13), [CdCl2(ampaoH)2] (14), [CdBr2(ampaoH)2] (15), [CdI2(ampaoH)2] (16) και [Cd(NO3)2(ampaoH)2] (17). Οι μοριακές και κρυσταλλικές δομές των συμπλόκων προσδιορίστηκαν με κρυσταλλογραφία ακτίνων Χ επί μονοκρυστάλλων των ενώσεων (Σχήμα II). Τα σύμπλοκα χαρακτηρίσθηκαν με στοιχειακές αναλύσεις και διάφορες φασματοσκοπικές μεθόδους (IR, Raman, NMR, Φωτοφωταύγεια). Τα φασματοσκοπικά δεδομένα μελετήθηκαν σε σχέση με τις γνωστές δομές των ενώσεων. Tα περισσότερα σύμπλοκα είναι μονοπυρηνικά. Οι ενώσεις 10 και 13 είναι 1D πολυμερή ένταξης. Τα μόρια paoH, mepaoH, phpaoH και ampaoH συμπεριφέρονται ως Ν(πυρίδυλο), Ν(οξιμικό)-διδοντικοί χηλικοί υποκαταστάτες. Τα ιόντα CdII στα σύμπλοκα είναι 6-, 7- και 8-ενταγμένα. Οι κρυσταλλικές δομές των περισσοτέρων συμπλόκων σταθεροποιούνται από δεσμούς Η. Τα περισσότερα σύμπλοκα διασπώνται στο DMSO, όπως προκύπτει από τα 1Η ΝΜR φάσματά τους. Τα σύμπλοκα 9, 14 και 12, 17 μοντελοποιούν τα χημικά είδη [CdCl2(μέσο εκχύλισης)2] και [Cd(NO3)2(μέσο εκχύλισης)2] που έχει προταθεί ότι σχηματίζονται κατά τη διαδικασία της υγρής εκχύλισης του Cd(II) με τη χρησιμοποίηση των 2PC12 και 2PC14 σε διαλύματα χλωριδίων και χλωριδίων/νιτρικών, αντίστοιχα. Με επιφύλαξη προτείνουμε ότι η ικανότητα των 2-πυρίδυλο κετοξιμών να απομακρύνουν Cd(II) από υδατικά απόβλητα οφείλεται στην ισχυρά χηλική φύση των μέσων εκχύλισης. / Because of the wide application of cadmium in various industrial facilities and its simultaneous toxic properties for organisms, the removal of Cd(II) from wastewater is a currently hot topic in environmental chemistry. Solvent extraction is an efficient method from the removal of Cd(II) from chloride, sulfate or phosphate solutions. Solvent extraction occurs when a metal ion is coordinated to an organic ligand to form a species that is transferred from the aqueous to the organic phase in a two-phase system. It has recently been reported that cadmium(II) can be extracted from chloride or chloride/nitrate media using two 2-pyridyl ketoximes, namely 1-(2-pyridyl)-trideca-1-one oxime (2PC12) and 1-(2-pyridyl)-pentadeca-one oxime (2PC14), as extractants and chloroform or hydracarbons as organic solvents [A. Parus, K. Wieszczycka, A. Olszanowski (2011) Hydrometallurgy, 105, 284]. The goal of this work is to model the nature of the chemical species that are formed during the solvent extraction of Cd(II) using 2-pyridyl ketoximes as extractants. Thus, we studied the reactions of various Cd(II) sources with 2-pyridyl oximes as ligands (Scheme I). The ligands used were 2-pyridine aldoxime (paoH), methyl 2-pyridyl ketoxime (mepaoH), phenyl 2-pyridyl ketoxime (phpaoH) and pyridine-2-amidoxime (ampaoH). Our systematic investigations gave the products [CdI2(paoH)2] (1), [Cd(NO3)2(paoH)2] (2), [Cd(NO3)(H2O)(paoH)2](NO3) (3), [Cd(paoH)3](ClO4)2 (4), [Cd(pao)2(paoH)2] (5), [CdI2(mepaoH)2] (6), [Cd(NO3)2(mepaoH)2] (7), [Cd(O2CMe)2(mepaoH)2] (8), [CdCl2(phpaoH)2] (9), [Cd4Br8(phpaoH)4]n (10), [CdI2(phpaoH)2] (11), [Cd(NO3)2(phpaoH)2] (12), [Cd2(Ο2CMe)4(phpaoH)2]n (13), [CdCl2(ampaoH)2] (14), [CdBr2(ampaoH)2] (15), [CdI2(ampaoH)2] (16) and [Cd(NO3)2(ampaoH)2] (17). The molecular and crystal structures of the complexes have been determined by single-crystal, X-ray crystallography (Scheme II). The complexes have been characterized by elemental analyses and various spectroscopic techniques (IR, Raman, NMR, Photoluminescence). The spectroscopic data are discussed in terms of the known structures. Most complexes are mononuclear. Compounds 10 and 13 are 1D coordination polymers. The paoH, mepaoH, phpaoH and ampaoH molecules behave as N(pyridyl), N(oxime)–bidentate chelating ligands. The CdII ions in the complexes are 6-, 7- and 8-coordinate. The crystal structures of most complexes are stabilized by H bonds. Most of the complexes decompose in DMSO, as evidenced by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Complexes 9, 14 and 12, 17 model the chemical species [CdCl2(extractant)2] and [Cd(NO3)2(extractant)2] that have been proposed to form during the solvent extraction of Cd(II) using 2PC12 and 2PC14 in chloride and dilute chloride/concentrated nitrate solutions, respectively. We tentatively propose that the ability of 2-pyridyl ketoximes to remove Cd(II) from wastewater is due to the strongly chelating nature of the extractants.

Large numbers of samples often need to be prepared and analysed in surveys of organic pollutants in the environment, but while the methods commonly used in such surveys can provide abundant detail they are generally costly, time-consuming and require large amounts of resources, so there is a need for simpler techniques. The work underlying this thesis assessed the potential utility of more convenient sample preparation and bioanalytical techniques for rapidly screening various environmental matrices that could be useful complements to higher resolution methods. Initially, the utility of a simplified extraction technique followed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detecting polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in authentic (i.e. unspiked) contaminated soils was explored. The results showed that there are relationships between the structure and cross-reactivity among compounds that often co-occur with target PAHs. However, their potential contribution to deviations between estimates of total PAH contents of soils obtained using ELISA and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) based reference methods were limited. Instead, the cross-reactivity of target PAHs and the failure to extract all of the PAHs prior to the ELISA determinations were the main reasons for these deviations. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) were detected in food and feed matrices, as well as in authentic contaminated soils using different bioanalytical techniques – ELISA and two cell-based bioassays: CAFLUX and CALUX (chemically activated fluorescent/luciferase gene expression) assays. In addition, enhanced sample preparation techniques based on accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) were developed. ASE with integrated carbon fractionation (ASE-C) in combination with CAFLUX produced estimates of PCDD and PCDF contents in fish oil and fish meal that agreed well with results obtained using reference methods. Furthermore, results from ELISA and GC-high resolution MS analyses of extracts of PCDD- and PCDF-contaminated soil samples obtained using an adjusted ASE-C technique were strongly correlated. Finally, the thesis reports the first experiments in which the results of CAFLUX, CALUX, and ELISA determinations of PCDDs and PCDFs in extracts of authentic contaminated soil samples were evaluated and compared to those obtained using a reference method. All of the bioanalytical techniques were found to be sufficiently sensitive, selective, and accurate for use in screening in compliance with soil quality assessment criteria. Overall, the improved sample preparation and bioanalytical techniques examined proved to be useful potential complements to conventional methods, enhancing the analytical framework for PAHs, PCDDs, and PCDFs. However, further validation has to be undertaken before they are applied on a large-scale.

Este trabajo ha estado dirigido al estudio de un proceso eficaz de separación que posibilite la recuperación de zinc de efluentes de decapado ácido de elevada toxicidad, así como su posterior concentración en una fase de características físico-químicas adecuadas para posibilitar su reciclado en baños electrolíticos. Para ello se propone la extracción líquido-líquido no dispersiva como tecnología limpia de elevada eficacia y con bajo requerimiento energético.Tras una exhaustiva revisión bibliográfica, se seleccionan el fosfato de tributilo y el agua de red como agentes extractante y reextractante respectivamente. A lo largo del trabajo y tras una etapa previa dirigida a la evaluación de la viabilidad técnica del proceso, se caracterizaron experimentalmente las reacciones responsables de las etapas de extracción y reextracción, así como la cinética del proceso de separación, para a continuación plantear el modelo matemático y determinar los parámetros característicos del sistema necesarios para el diseño y optimización del proceso de separación-concentración de zinc de efluentes de decapado ácido metálico. / The work was focused on the study of the recovery of zinc from spent pickling effluents, under conditions that permitted the recovery of electrolytic grade metal, thus, reducing the effluent toxicity and with valorisation, at the same time, of the component of higher added value. After a deep literature review, non dispersive solvent extraction using tributyl phosphate (TBP) and service water as extraction and back extraction agents, respectively, was selected as the best separatión alternative. The work started with the analysis of the process viability and included an experimental design of the equilibrium, and kinetics of the phenomena involved in the metal valorisation. The kinetic analysis of the membrane assisted process of zinc recovery from spent pickling effluents was carried out, obtaining the mathematical model and parameters needed for design and optimisation of the metal separation step in a valorisation process.

In freshwater, there is more opportunity for silver (Ag) to interact with organic ligands than in seawater. Triclosan is an antibiotic agent which resembles thyroid hormone T3 and is finding its way into aquatic systems. Preliminary toxicology studies for the frogSCOPE program suggest that triclosan and nanosilver (nanoAg), also used as an antibiotic agent, may be chemically interacting, as they seem to synergistically increase the endocrine-disrupting abilities already observed independently in each chemical. Ag speciation methods can be used to determine if triclosan or thyroid hormone T3 are interacting with Ag ion (Ag+), which gets released over time by nanoAg. To fully utilize Ag speciation methods, however, total Ag in the sample must also be independently analyzed. Here we investigated a new total Ag analysis using cadmium sulfide quantum dots (CdS QDs) as fluorescence probes in solution. This method promises results in a fraction of the time of the established competitive ligand equilibration-solvent extraction (CLE-SE) technique utilizing PDC- and DDC- to bind Ag and bring it out of solution. Following this investigation were a series of experiments using CLE-SE for total Ag and Ag speciation in well water used to house bullfrog tadpoles in frogSCOPE Ag exposure studies. CLE-SE for Ag speciation was also applied to well water samples containing the two levels of nanoAg or Ag+ used in frogSCOPE Ag exposures, and used in ligand competition experiments to examine the potential of triclosan or T3 to act as strong Ag-binding ligands, as compared to glutathione and EDTA, two known Ag-binding ligands. The results of the latter experiments could be used to determine if either of these could be forming complexes with Ag which increase or decrease their delivery to amphibian cells. The fluorometric method using CdS QDs showed no ideal analytical response to nanomolar Ag+, even when commercial QDs were modified and used, so it could not be applied to our samples. Using CLE-SE for total Ag, the well water used as a base for toxicity studies in frogSCOPE contained Ag below the method detection limit of 5 pM. Using the speciation variation of the CLE-SE method, no evidence of naturally-occurring ligands which could produce extractable (hydrophobic) or non-extractable (hydrophilic) Ag complexes was found in this well water. EDTA and glutathione responded as model Ag-binding ligands to form non-extractable hydrophilic Ag complexes in fresh water. T3 behaved like these model ligands, while triclosan enhanced the extractability of Ag in the presence of certain concentrations of the added ligand, DDC-. In another set of experiments, coordination of Ag by triclosan or T3 was not detectable within that analytical window. These results suggest that ionic Ag released over time by nanoAg may be binding T3 and preventing it from reaching its receptor, but confirming the interaction of triclosan and Ag+ will require additional experiments using different analytical windows.

Water is a crucial natural resource, indispensable to food production, life, the environment, power generation, industry, sanitation and hygiene. The presence of Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) in the environment is not wanted due to their negative effects on human beings and animals. As a result, there is a need to continuously monitor their presence in the environment. In this study, surface water samples were collected once a month during the dry season and during wet season from the selected five points along the Olifants River and stored at a temperature of < 50C before analysis. The OCPs were extracted with dichloromethane (DCM) using the Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) method. After undertaking the sample through the clean- up process, the crude extracts obtained were put into the column chromatography and eluted with hexane, about 1.5 μL of the purified extracts were analysed by the Gas Chromatographic- Mass Spectrophotometer (GC/MS). The percentage recoveries, varied from 32- 116 % for p, p’-DDT and 4,4'-DDD respectively in triply spiked water samples. The standard deviation for most of the compounds is less than±0.04, with the exclusion of Heptachlor (±0.14). The seasonal variability of OCPs in water samples along Olifants River results show that in dry season, the Olifants River is mostly polluted at the Oxford site with (BHC-beta, Aldrin, Heptachlor-epoxide, Endosulfan-alpha and Endrin), at the Ga- Selati site with (Heptachlor-epoxide and Endrin) and at the Wolvekrans site with (Endosulfan-alpha), with Aldrin up to 834.20 ng/ L indicating the highest hazard toward the aquatic environment while in summer the Olifants River is mostly polluted at the Ga- selati site with BHC-beta and at the Waterval site with (Heptachlor and BHC-gamma) with BHC- gamma up to 560 ng/ L indicating the highest hazard toward the aquatic environment. The levels reached from the Olifants River catchment were meaningfully above the drinking water quality guidelines for organic chemical recommended by WHO, 2006 i.e. (BHC-gamma,DDT-44, Aldrin, dieldrin and Endrin are (2.0,1.0,0.03,0.03 and 0.6) respectively for the protection of the domestic use, aquatic ecology and agricultural use (irrigation and livestock watering) for compounds with local guideline values; while, the international water quality guidelines to protect the aquatic ecosystems are 0.00083 ng/mℓ (4,4’DDD), 0.00059 ng/mL (4,4’DDE), (4,4’DDT), 0.00021 ng/mL (heptachlor), 0.0092 ng/mℓ (α-HCH), 0.0186 ng/mL (γ- HCH), and chronic values are 0.056 ng/mL (ENDO I and II) and 0.0023 ng/mL endrin) (USEPA, 2002). Levels detected were significantly higher than some research studies conducted up to now in South African aquatic environments. These results confirm the contamination of the Olifants River catchment by the OCPs. / Water and Sanitation / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:30:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:00:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 01387.pdf: 2053886 bytes, checksum: 9c61b3e10e5af0bb9a9a9cb8707260c7 (MD5) / Tese (Doutoramento) / IPEN/T / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP