O adenoma pleomórfico (AP) é a neoplasia mais frequente das glândulas salivares e a sua transformação maligna em um carcinoma ex-adenoma pleomórfico (CXAP) é um evento incomum que ocorre em menos de 10% dos casos. O CXAP é tipicamente uma neoplasia infiltrativa, de alto grau e associada com metástase linfonodal no momento do diagnóstico. Acredita-se que a patogênese do CXAP tenha como base o acúmulo de alterações genéticas em APs de longa duração. Evidências recentes têm demonstrado que neoplasias podem conter subpopulações de células raras, com capacidade de auto-renovação e potencial proliferativo indefinido, as chamadas células-tronco neoplásicas (CTN). As CTN parecem estar envolvidas nos processos de iniciação e progressão neoplásicas, assim como metástases e resistência terapêutica. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a expressão imuno-histoquímica, tanto nas áreas benignas quanto nas malignas, dos fatores de transcrição relacionados à pluripotência de células-tronco Bmi-1, SOX2 e Nanog em CXAPs em fases precoces (7 intracapsulares e 3 minimamente invasivos) e avançada (14 francamente invasivos) de progressão histológica. A análise dos resultados de imuno-histoquímica foi realizada de maneira semi-quantitativa de acordo com o escore 0 (ausência de células positivas), 1 (<30% de células positivas), 2 (30-60% de células positivas e 3 (>60% de células positivas). Correlacionou-se, ainda, esses resultados com parâmetros anatomopatológicos de agressividade neoplásica através do teste Exato de Fisher. A parótida foi a glândula mais acometida em ambos os grupos (62,5%), e homens e mulheres foram igualmente acometidos. A média de idade foi 61,1 anos. No grupo de CXAPs precoces, Bmi-1 foi expresso no componente carcinomatoso de todos os casos e em escassas células das áreas benignas de 1 caso. O fator SOX2 foi expresso pelas células carcinomatosas em 90% desses casos e em escassas células do AP residual de 1 caso. Já Nanog foi expresso apenas no componente maligno de 60% dos casos. Por outro lado, Bmi-1 foi expresso nas áreas malignas de 71,4% dos CXAPs avançados e em ocasionais células da área benigna de 1 caso. O AP residual de nenhum caso desse grupo foi positivo para SOX2 e Nanog, que foram expressos pelas áreas malignas em 92,8% e 35,7% dos casos, respectivamente. Assim, notou-se queda na expressão de Bmi-1 e Nanog na progressão do CXAP. Ainda, a expressão de SOX2 parece correlacionar-se com necrose neoplásica (p=0,06) e metástase linfonodal ao diagnóstico (p=0,08), entretanto a amostra estudada parece pequena para evidenciar esse dado estatístico. Concluiu-se que Bmi-1, SOX2 e Nanog são superexpressos na transformação maligna do AP. Entretanto, Bmi-1 e Nanog aparentemente não exercem função determinante no processo de progressão neoplásica, ao passo que SOX2 parece contribuir com o processo de metástase em CXAP. / Pleomorphic adenoma (PA) is the most common salivary gland tumor and its malignant transformation into a carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma (CXPA) is an unusual event occuring in less than 10% of the cases. The CXPA is typically an infiltrative and high-grade neoplasm at diagnosis associated with lymph node metastases. It is believed that the pathogenesis of CXPA is based on the accumulation of genetic changes in long-standing PAs. Recent evidences have shown that tumors may contain subpopulations of rare cells, capable of self-renewal, and with indefinite proliferative potential, the so-called neoplastic stem cells (NSC). The NSC appears to be involved in neoplastic initiation and progression, as well as metastasis and treatment resistance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the immunohistochemical expression of stem cell-related pluripotency transcription factors Bmi-1, SOX2, and Nanog in benign and malignant areas of CXPA at early (7 intracapsular and 3 minimally invasive) and advanced (14 frankly invasive) stages of histological progression. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed semiquantitatively according to the scores 0 (no positive cell), 1 (<30% positive cells), 2 (30-60% of cells positive, and 3 (>60% positive cells). These results were also correlated with pathological parameters of neoplastic aggressiveness using the Fisher\'s Exact test. The parotid gland was the most affected site in both groups (62.5%), and men and women were equally affected. The mean age was 61.1 years. In the early CXPA group, Bmi-1 was expressed in carcinomatous component of all cases and in occasional cells of benign areas of 1 case. The SOX2 factor was expressed by the carcinomatous cells in 90% of cases and scant cells in residual PA of 1 case. Nanog was expressed in 60% of cases, only in the malignant component. On the other hand, Bmi-1 was expressed in malignant areas of 71.4% of advanced CXPAs and in occasional cells of benign area of 1 case. The residual PA of none of the cases in this group was positive to SOX2 and Nanog, which were expressed by carcinomatous areas in 92.8% and 35.7% of cases, respectively. Thus, it was noted that Bmi-1 and Nanog expression decreases in CXPA progression. Yet, SOX2 expression seems to be correlated with neoplastic necrosis (p= 0.06) and lymph node metastasis at diagnosis (p=0.08), but the current sample seems to be small to evidence this statistic data. It was concluded that Bmi-1, Nanog, and SOX2 are overexpressed in malignant transformation of PA. However, Bmi-1 and Nanog apparently do not exert a decisive role in the process of neoplastic progression, while SOX2 seems to contribute to the process of metastasis in CXPA.

O adenoma pleomórfico (AP) é a neoplasia mais frequente das glândulas salivares e a sua transformação maligna em um carcinoma ex-adenoma pleomórfico (CXAP) é um evento incomum que ocorre em menos de 10% dos casos. O CXAP é tipicamente uma neoplasia infiltrativa, de alto grau e associada com metástase linfonodal no momento do diagnóstico. Acredita-se que a patogênese do CXAP tenha como base o acúmulo de alterações genéticas em APs de longa duração. Evidências recentes têm demonstrado que neoplasias podem conter subpopulações de células raras, com capacidade de auto-renovação e potencial proliferativo indefinido, as chamadas células-tronco neoplásicas (CTN). As CTN parecem estar envolvidas nos processos de iniciação e progressão neoplásicas, assim como metástases e resistência terapêutica. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a expressão imuno-histoquímica, tanto nas áreas benignas quanto nas malignas, dos fatores de transcrição relacionados à pluripotência de células-tronco Bmi-1, SOX2 e Nanog em CXAPs em fases precoces (7 intracapsulares e 3 minimamente invasivos) e avançada (14 francamente invasivos) de progressão histológica. A análise dos resultados de imuno-histoquímica foi realizada de maneira semi-quantitativa de acordo com o escore 0 (ausência de células positivas), 1 (<30% de células positivas), 2 (30-60% de células positivas e 3 (>60% de células positivas). Correlacionou-se, ainda, esses resultados com parâmetros anatomopatológicos de agressividade neoplásica através do teste Exato de Fisher. A parótida foi a glândula mais acometida em ambos os grupos (62,5%), e homens e mulheres foram igualmente acometidos. A média de idade foi 61,1 anos. No grupo de CXAPs precoces, Bmi-1 foi expresso no componente carcinomatoso de todos os casos e em escassas células das áreas benignas de 1 caso. O fator SOX2 foi expresso pelas células carcinomatosas em 90% desses casos e em escassas células do AP residual de 1 caso. Já Nanog foi expresso apenas no componente maligno de 60% dos casos. Por outro lado, Bmi-1 foi expresso nas áreas malignas de 71,4% dos CXAPs avançados e em ocasionais células da área benigna de 1 caso. O AP residual de nenhum caso desse grupo foi positivo para SOX2 e Nanog, que foram expressos pelas áreas malignas em 92,8% e 35,7% dos casos, respectivamente. Assim, notou-se queda na expressão de Bmi-1 e Nanog na progressão do CXAP. Ainda, a expressão de SOX2 parece correlacionar-se com necrose neoplásica (p=0,06) e metástase linfonodal ao diagnóstico (p=0,08), entretanto a amostra estudada parece pequena para evidenciar esse dado estatístico. Concluiu-se que Bmi-1, SOX2 e Nanog são superexpressos na transformação maligna do AP. Entretanto, Bmi-1 e Nanog aparentemente não exercem função determinante no processo de progressão neoplásica, ao passo que SOX2 parece contribuir com o processo de metástase em CXAP. / Pleomorphic adenoma (PA) is the most common salivary gland tumor and its malignant transformation into a carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma (CXPA) is an unusual event occuring in less than 10% of the cases. The CXPA is typically an infiltrative and high-grade neoplasm at diagnosis associated with lymph node metastases. It is believed that the pathogenesis of CXPA is based on the accumulation of genetic changes in long-standing PAs. Recent evidences have shown that tumors may contain subpopulations of rare cells, capable of self-renewal, and with indefinite proliferative potential, the so-called neoplastic stem cells (NSC). The NSC appears to be involved in neoplastic initiation and progression, as well as metastasis and treatment resistance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the immunohistochemical expression of stem cell-related pluripotency transcription factors Bmi-1, SOX2, and Nanog in benign and malignant areas of CXPA at early (7 intracapsular and 3 minimally invasive) and advanced (14 frankly invasive) stages of histological progression. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed semiquantitatively according to the scores 0 (no positive cell), 1 (<30% positive cells), 2 (30-60% of cells positive, and 3 (>60% positive cells). These results were also correlated with pathological parameters of neoplastic aggressiveness using the Fisher\'s Exact test. The parotid gland was the most affected site in both groups (62.5%), and men and women were equally affected. The mean age was 61.1 years. In the early CXPA group, Bmi-1 was expressed in carcinomatous component of all cases and in occasional cells of benign areas of 1 case. The SOX2 factor was expressed by the carcinomatous cells in 90% of cases and scant cells in residual PA of 1 case. Nanog was expressed in 60% of cases, only in the malignant component. On the other hand, Bmi-1 was expressed in malignant areas of 71.4% of advanced CXPAs and in occasional cells of benign area of 1 case. The residual PA of none of the cases in this group was positive to SOX2 and Nanog, which were expressed by carcinomatous areas in 92.8% and 35.7% of cases, respectively. Thus, it was noted that Bmi-1 and Nanog expression decreases in CXPA progression. Yet, SOX2 expression seems to be correlated with neoplastic necrosis (p= 0.06) and lymph node metastasis at diagnosis (p=0.08), but the current sample seems to be small to evidence this statistic data. It was concluded that Bmi-1, Nanog, and SOX2 are overexpressed in malignant transformation of PA. However, Bmi-1 and Nanog apparently do not exert a decisive role in the process of neoplastic progression, while SOX2 seems to contribute to the process of metastasis in CXPA.

The sex determining region Y-box 2 (sox2) gene is one of the most important transcription factors during development, particularly the development of the central nervous system (CNS). It is expressed in embryonic stem cells and later in neural stem cells, where it modulates their maintenance and differentiation. In humans, heterozygous mutations are associated with eye malformations, including anophthalmia and severe microphthalmia. Also, a subset of patients has extra-ocular phenotypes, such as hearing loss, seizures and pituitary hypoplasia. Although the roles of sox2 in embryonic stem cells and eye development are well studied, the function of sox2 in brain development and disease is still elusive. The aim of this project was to characterize a novel role for sox2 in the development of zebrafish epithalamus, which was identified from an in silico screen previously performed in our laboratory. The zebrafish epithalamus, located in the dorsal diencephalon, consists of three main structures: the pineal gland, the parapineal organ and the habenular nuclei. The pineal gland, also known as epiphysis, is a photoreceptive (in zebrafish) and neuroendocrine organ that detects light and rhythmically produces melatonin in order to regulate the circadian rhythms. The parapineal organ is located to the left side of the pineal gland and is important for the elaboration of the asymmetries observed between the left and right habenular nuclei. Finally, the bilateral habenulae are part of the dorsal diencephalic conduction system that links the forebrain with the mid- and hindbrain. The left and right habenulae show both molecular and neuroanatomical asymmetries, including differences in neuropil organization, in levels of gene expression and in the morphology and connectivity of their neurons’ projections. The relatively simple architecture of the pineal gland and the asymmetric character of the habenulae provide a useful tool for studying cell-fate determination, cell migration and establishment of brain asymmetries. In this study, we used zebrafish as a model to dissect the novel functions of sox2 in the development of the epithalamus. We showed that sox2 works synergistically with Notch pathway to negatively regulate neurogenesis within the pineal gland. The pineal gland consists of only two cell types: the photoreceptors and the projection neurons. Previous studies showed that the Notch and BMP pathways are important for the proper specification of these cells. Here, we show that sox2 normally inhibits the photoreceptor cell fate, whereas it has no effect on the number of projection neurons. Therefore, sox2 complements Notch and BMP pathways in cell-fate determination within the pineal gland. In addition, downregulation of sox2 results in abnormal parapineal organ development and disruption of the asymmetric architecture of the habenulae. A subset of sox2 morphant embryos develops right-sided parapineal organs, which is consistent with abnormal bilateral expression of the Nodal gene, pitx2 (paired-like homeodomain transcription factor 2). Also, timelapse experiments showed that migration of the parapineal cells is defective, resulting in scattered cells. The aberrant parapineal development leads to disorganization of the habenular nuclei, as shown by the abnormal neuropil arrangement and the expression of the asymmetric marker kctd12.1 (potassium channel tetramerisation domain containing 12.1).

The regenerative tissues such as hair follicles, intestine and teeth have a particular microenvironment known as “stem cell niche” which houses stem cells and act as a signaling center to control stem cell fate. The precise and timely regulation of stem cell renewal and differentiation is essential for tissue formation, growth and homeostasis over the course of a lifetime. However, the molecular underpinning to control this regulation is poorly understood. To address this issue, we use the continuously growing mouse incisor as a model to study the gene regulatory network which controls dental epithelial stem cell (DESC) maintenance, growth and craniofacial morphogenesis. We found FoxO6, a transcription factor mainly expressed in the brain and craniofacial region, control DESC proliferation by regulating Hippo signaling. FoxO6 loss-of-function mice undergo increases in cell proliferation which finally leads to lengthening of the incisors, expansion of the face and skull and enlargement of the mandible and maxilla. We have screened three human FOXO6 single nucleotide polymorphisms which are associated with facial morphology ranging from retrognathism to prognathism. Our study also reveals that Sox2 and Lef-1, two markers for early craniofacial development, are regulated by Pitx2 to control DESC maintenance, differentiation and craniofacial development. Conditional Sox2 deletion in the oral and dental epithelia results in severe craniofacial defects, including ankyloglossia, cleft palate, arrested incisor development and abnormal molar development. The loss of Sox2 in DESCs leads to impaired stem cell proliferation, migration and subsequent dissolution of the tooth germ. On the other hand, conditional overexpression of Lef-1 in oral and dental epithelial region increases DESC proliferation and creates a new labial cervical loop stem cell compartment in dental epithelial stem cell niche, which produces rapidly growing long “tusk-like” incisors. Interestingly, Lef-1 overexpression rescues the tooth arrest defects but not the ankyloglossia or cleft palate in Sox2 conditional deletion mice. Our data also reveal that miRNA and histone remodeler are involved in regulating DESC proliferation and craniofacial morphogenesis. We describe a miR-23a/b:Hmgn2:Pitx2 signaling pathway in regulating dental epithelial cell growth and differentiation. Pitx2 activates expression of amelogenin which is the major protein component for enamel deposition. This activation can be repressed by the chromatin-associated factor Hmgn2. miR-23a and miR-23b directly target Hmgn2, leading to the release of the Hmgn2 inhibition of Pitx2 transcriptional activity and thus enhance Amelogenin production. Phenotypically, ablation of Hmgn2 in mice results in an overgrowth of incisors with increased Amelogenin expression. The findings in this study increase our current understanding of the molecular regulation of dental epithelial stem cell fate. It not only highlights new gene regulatory network that controls dental stem cell maintenance, growth and craniofacial morphogenesis, but also sheds new light on developing novel stem cell therapy or gene therapy for tooth regeneration and dental diseases.

Tracheobronchial submucosal glands (SMGs) develop from clusters of epithelial progenitor cells basally orientated within the surface airway epithelium called primordial glandular placodes (PGPs). Signal transduction events that coordinate the transitional process from PGPs into fully developed SMGs consisting of intricately branched networks of tubular secretary structures are still poorly understood. Wnt/β-catenin dependent induction of lymphoid enhancing factor-1 (Lef-1) expression in PGP progenitor/stem cells is required for SMG formation and maturation in the airway. In an effort to better understand the regulatory mechanisms that control Lef-1 during airway SMG development, I have studied its transcriptional regulation. I discovered that Sox2 expression is predominantly confined to the surface airway epithelium (SAE) and is repressed as Lef-1 is induced within PGPs. Deletion of Sox2 in polarized primary airway epithelia significantly enhances Lef-1 mRNA expression. Consequently, my hypothesis is that Sox2 functions as a negative regulator of Lef-1 expression in the SAE. I demonstrated that Sox2 modulates the expression of Lef-1 both independent and dependent on Wnt/β-catenin signaling. I discovered that a Sox2-binding site located in the Wnt Responsive Element (WRE) region of the 2.5Kb Lef-1 promoter is required for Sox2-mediated inhibition of β-catenin-dependent Lef-1 promoter transcription. It is important to understand the biology of SMG development because SMGs are the major mucus-producing structures in the proximal airway and are important in regulating the innate immunity of the lung in response to various neural signals. SMG ducts have also been proposed as a potential protective niche for slowly cycling progenitor cells (SCPCs). Hence, aberrant SMG function is thought to aggravate the pathoprogression of lung disease. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a disease caused by a defect in the gene that encodes a chloride ion channel called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). The absence of CFTR in serous cells within SMG ducts contributes to defective airway secretion, which alters the microenvironment within SMGs. I hypothesized that the glandular SCPC niche may be dysfunctional in CF. I reported that the neural peptide, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) activates CFTR-dependent SMG secretions and that this signaling pathway is hyperactivated in CF human, pig, ferret, and mouse SMGs. CFTR-deficient mice failed to maintain glandular SCPCs following airway injury, suggesting that the glandular SCPC niche may be dysfunctional in CF. CGRP levels increase following airway injury and function as an injury-inducible mitogen that stimulates progenitor cell proliferation. However, components of the receptor for CGRP (RAMP1 and CLR) were expressed in a very small subset of SCPCs, suggesting that CGRP indirectly stimulates SCPC proliferation through paracrine mechanisms. This discovery may have important implications for injury/repair mechanisms in the CF airway.

Our lab has recently found that E2F3, an essential cell cycle regulator, regulates the self-renewal capacity of neural precursor cells (NPCs) in the developing mouse brain. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and immunoblotting techniques revealed several E2F3 target genes, including the polycomb group (PcG) protein, EZH2. Further ChIP and immunoblotting techniques identified the neural stem cell self-renewal regulators p16INK4a and Sox2 as shared gene targets of E2F3 and PcG proteins, indicating that E2F3 and PcG proteins may co-regulate these target genes. E2f3-/- NPCs demonstrated dysregulated expression of EZH2, p16INK4a, and SOX2 and decreased enrichment of PcG proteins at target genes. Restoring EZH2 expression to E2f3+/+ levels restores p16INK4a and SOX2 expression levels to near E2f3+/+ levels, and also partially rescues NPC self-renewal capacity toward E2f3+/+ levels. Taken together, these results suggest that E2F3 controls NPC self-renewal by modulating expression of p16INK4a and SOX2 via regulation of PcG expression, and potentially PcG recruitment.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most common and malignant brain tumor, is characterized by high molecular and cellular heterogeneity within and among tumors. Parameters such as invasive growth, infiltration of immune cells and endothelial proliferation contribute in a systemic manner to maintain the malignancy. Studies in this thesis show that the expression of Sox2 is correlated with Sox21 in human gliomas. We demonstrate that an upregulation of Sox21 induces loss of proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation in glioma cells in vitro and in vivo and seems to correlate with decreased Sox2 expression. Induced expression of Sox21 in vivo significantly reduces the tumor size and increase the survival extensively, suggesting that Sox21 can act as a tumor suppressor Our studies indicate that the balance of Sox21-Sox2 in glioma cells is decisive of either a proliferative or a non-proliferative state. Several TGFß family members have an important role in glioma development. TGFß promotes proliferation and tumorigenicity whereas BMPs mostly inhibit proliferation. We demonstrate that BMP7 can induce the transcription factor Snail in glioma cells and that this reduces the tumorigenicity with a concomitant increase in invasiveness. Thus, we have identified a mechanism to the double-edged sword of proliferation versus invasiveness in GBM, the latter contributing to relapse in patients. Experimental gliomas were induced with the Sleeping Beauty (SB) model in mice with different immunological status of their T cells. The tumors that developed were either GBMs or highly diffuse in their growth, reminiscent of gliomatosis cerebri (GC). GC is a highly uncommon form of glioma characterized by extensive infiltrative growth in large parts of the brain. It is an orphan disease and today there is practically a total lack of relevant experimental models. The SB system would constitute a novel experimental model to study the mechanisms behind the development of diffusely growing tumors like GC. The presence or absence of T cells did not affect tumor development. The work in this thesis demonstrates that the proliferative and the invasive capacities of glioma cells can be dissociated and that the SB model constitutes an excellent model to study the highly proliferative cells in GBMs versus the highly invasive cells in diffuse tumors like .GC.

The experiments described in this thesis report were aimed at studying the functions of Sox2 and Serrate1 during the development of the neurosensory elements of the inner ear. First, we have described the expression pattern of Sox2 during inner ear development and compared to that of Sox3 and Serate1. Secondly, we have shown the results of plasmid based in ovo electroporation experiments, designed to manipulate gene expression exogenously, and to study the gain of function of Sox2 and Serrate1. Effects on cell fate and downstream targets were assessed by in situ hybridization immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR).The results show that Sox2 is expressed in the neurosensory domain of the otic epithelium during the neurogenic period of otic development and, later on, during the development of the prosensory patches and sensory organs. As differentiation proceeds, Sox2 is excluded from differentiated neurones and hair cells, but remains expressed in the supporting cells of the sensory organs. Sox3 is co-expressed with Sox2 in the neurogenic domain of the otic cup. But Sox3 is then down-regulated and only Sox2 expression persists in the sensory precursors, where it is co-expressed with the Notch ligand Serrate1. The expression domain of Serrate1 is initially nested within Sox2, however, later in development Sox2 becomes restricted within the boundaries of Serrate1 expression, a process that is concomitant to the formation of the sensory patches. These expression patterns suggest: 1) that Sox2 correlates with neurosensory fate in the otic placode, 2) that neurogenesis is associated with Sox2 and Sox3 and 3) that sensory development is associated with Sox2 and Serrate1.Gain of function studies show that Serrate1 regulates prosensory fate and sensory organ development by maintaining Sox2 expression in restricted domains of the otocyst, without affecting neurogenesis. Serrate1 operates in a Notch-dependent manner, consistently with a mechanism of lateral induction that includes the induction of its own expression and downstream targets of the Notch signalling pathway Hes1, Hey1 and Hey2. Similar studies on Sox2 indicate that it specifies neurosensory fate in the otic epithelium. However, high concentrations of Sox2 suppress sensory fate and promote neuronal fate. Besides, Sox2 prevents cell differentiation though the cooperation with Notch and BMP signalling pathways.We like to propose a model in which an extended neural competence is early established in the otic placode with the early expression of Sox2 and Sox3 genes. The cooperation between Sox2 and Sox3 then provides a high concentration of SoxB1 protein and promote neuronal fate. In parallel, Serrate1 maintains Sox2 expression in restricted domains, after Sox3 down-regulation. These domains retain the neurosensory competence and thereby develop as sensory patches. / Los experimentos descritos en esta tesis tuvieron por objetivo estudiar la función de Sox2 y Serrate1 en el desarrollo de los elementos neurosensoriales del oído. En primer lugar describimos el patrón de expresión de Sox2 durante el desarrollo del oído y lo comparamos con el de Sox3 y Serrate1. En segundo lugar, mostramos los resultados de experimentos de electroporación in ovo, diseñados para manipular exógenamente la expresión génica y estudiar la ganancia de función de Sox2 y Serrate1. Los efectos sobre el destino celular y las dianas moleculares se analizaron mediante hibridación in situ, inmunocitoquímica y real-time PCR (qRT-PCR).Los resultados muestran que Sox2 se expresa en el dominio neurosensoerial del epitelio ótico durante la fase de neurogénesis y, más adelante, durante el desarrollo de los parches prosensoriales y los órganos sensoriales. Con la diferenciación, Sox2 es excluido de las neuronas diferenciadas y las células ciliadas, pero permanece expresado en las células de soporte. Sox3 se coexpresa con Sox2 en el dominio neurogénico de la copa ótica. Pero entonces, la expresión de Sox3 se reduce y sólo Sox2 persiste en los precursores sensoriales, en donde se co-expresa con el ligando de Notch Serrate1. El dominio de expresión de Serrate1 está inicialmente contenido en el de Sox2, sin embargo, más adelante, Sox2 se restringe dentro de los límites de Serrate1, un proceso que es concomitante con la formación de los parches sensoriales. Estos experimentos sugieren que : 1) Sox2 se correlaciona con el destino neurosensorial de la placoda ótica, 2) la neurogénesis está asociada con Sox2 y Sox3, y 3) el desarrollo sensorial está asociado a la expresión de Sox2 y Serrate1Los estudios de ganancia de función muestran que Serrate1 regula el destino prosensorial y el desarrollo de los órganos sensoriales mediante el mantenimiento de la expresión de Sox2 en dominios restringidos del otocisto, sin afectar a la neurogénesis. Serrate1 opera en un modo dependiente de Notch, consistente con un mecanismo de inducción lateral que comprende la inducción de su propia expresión y la de las dianas de Notch Hes1, Hey1 and Hey2. Estudios similares sobre Sox2 indican que Sox2 especifica el destino neurosensorial en el epitelio ótico. Sin embargo, las concentraciones altas de Sox2 suprimen el destino sensorial y promueven el destino neuronal. Además, Sox2 previene la diferencoiación celular mediante la cooperación con Notch y Bmp. Se propone un modelo en el cual la competencia neural se establece tempranamente en la placoda ótica mediante la expresión temprana de Sox2 y Sox3. La cooperación entre Sox2 y Sox3 provee una alta concentración de factores SoxB1 que promueven el destino neuronal de los progenitores. En paralelo, Serrate1 mantiene la expresión de Sox2 en dominios restringidos tras la supresión de Sox3. Estos dominios, retienen el potencial neurosensorial y, más adelante, se desarrollan como parches sensoriales.

Our lab has recently found that E2F3, an essential cell cycle regulator, regulates the self-renewal capacity of neural precursor cells (NPCs) in the developing mouse brain. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and immunoblotting techniques revealed several E2F3 target genes, including the polycomb group (PcG) protein, EZH2. Further ChIP and immunoblotting techniques identified the neural stem cell self-renewal regulators p16INK4a and Sox2 as shared gene targets of E2F3 and PcG proteins, indicating that E2F3 and PcG proteins may co-regulate these target genes. E2f3-/- NPCs demonstrated dysregulated expression of EZH2, p16INK4a, and SOX2 and decreased enrichment of PcG proteins at target genes. Restoring EZH2 expression to E2f3+/+ levels restores p16INK4a and SOX2 expression levels to near E2f3+/+ levels, and also partially rescues NPC self-renewal capacity toward E2f3+/+ levels. Taken together, these results suggest that E2F3 controls NPC self-renewal by modulating expression of p16INK4a and SOX2 via regulation of PcG expression, and potentially PcG recruitment.

The classical cell cycle regulatory pathway is well appreciated as a key regulator of cell fate determination during neurogenesis; however, the extent of pRB/E2F function in neural stem and progenitor cells is not fully understood, and insight into the mechanisms underlying its connection with cell fate regulation are lacking. The E2F3 transcription factor has emerged as an important regulator of neural precursor cell (NPC) proliferation in the embryonic and adult forebrain, and we demonstrate here that it also influences the self-renewal potential of NPCs. Using knockout mouse models of individual E2F3 isoforms, we demonstrate the surprising result that the classical transcriptional activator E2F3a represses NPC self-renewal and promotes neuronal differentiation, while E2F3b promotes the expansion of the NPC pool and inhibits differentiation. We attribute these opposing activities to a unique mechanism of transcriptional regulation at the Sox2 locus, a key regulator of stem cell pluripotency, whereby E2F3a recruits transcriptional repressors to this site, and E2F3b promotes Sox2 activation. Importantly, E2F3a-mediated Sox2 regulation is necessary for cognitive function in the adult. Additionally, through the determination of genome-wide promoter binding sites for E2f3 isoforms as well as E2F4, another key regulator of NPC self-renewal, we determined that E2Fs are poised to regulate an extensive set of target genes with key roles in regulating diverse cell fate choices in NPCs, including self-renewal, cell death, progenitor expansion, maintenance of the precursor state, and differentiation. Together, these results reveal a diversity of function for E2Fs in the control of neural precursor cell fate, and identify E2F3 isoforms as important regulators of the pluripotency and stem cell maintenance gene Sox2.