There exist large number of techniques for the preparation of nanostructured materials. Among them the preparation of nanopowders by gas/vapour condensation is a popular one. Because of very high level of surface to volume ratio, powders of metals which may or may not be reactive in the bulk form undergo vigorous oxidation. Oxidation once initiated continues in an auto catalytic fashion leading to a rise in temperature further increasing the oxidation rate. Therefore, the nanopowders are consolidated in situ under high vacuum. Alternatively a thin passivating oxide layer of few nm can be produced by slow exposure to air. Such powders lend themselves to be handled in further processing in ambient atmosphere. The main objective of the present research is to understand the various scientific and technological issues involved in preparing such passivated nanopowders by levitational gas condensation (LGC) technique, a relatively less explored vapour condensation process and their subsequent consolidation by the powder metallurgical route of compaction and sintering. The nanopowders systems studied are Fe and Fe-Cu (4 wt. %Cu). In chapter 1 a brief review of the gas condensation process and the consolidation behavior of nanopowders produced by this method were carried out. Existing knowledge on various topics relevant for the present study like formation of nanoparticles, agglomeration during gas condensation, physical, structural and chemical nature of the passive layer formed during passivation, compaction and sintering behaviour of this passivated nanopowders were discussed. Chapter 2 details the synthesis of Fe nanopowders by levitational gas condensation process and its physical and structural characteristics. The nanopowders in the as synthesized condition showed extremely low packing density due to loosely packed weakly interlocked agglomerates. The nanoparticles manifest as three dimensional reticulated spongy structure composed of chains of these nanoparticles. Heat transfer calculation carried out to determine the particle temperature at different distance from the levitating drop indicates that the nanoparticles can be ferromagnetic at a distance of less than 2 mm away from the levitation drop and hence the magnetic nature of the materials plays an important role in the formation of nanoparticle chains and spongy agglomerates. Passivation of the nanopowders by slow exposure to air produces 3-4 nm thick oxide layer (Fe3O4) over α-Fe and the volume of these oxides was around 45%. The 3rd chapter presents and discusses the results of Fe-Cu alloy nanopowder synthesized by levitating gas condensation process. While synthesis of elemental nanopowders by gas condensation is straight forward as the operating conditions only influence the particle size, alloys require careful control of the levitating drop composition. Although initially we start the process with levitated drop of required composition, the vapour generated will be richer in more volatile element (Cu in our case). Thus the composition of the levitated drop progressively becomes deficient in Cu which in turn reduces Cu in the vapour. Composition of the drop can be stabilised by continuous feeding of the alloy of required composition that can be estimated from the knowledge of equilibrium relation. To establish the equilibrium relationship between composition of the liquid and vapour in evaporation and condensation, phase diagram in the liquid and vapour region was calculated and was validated by determining composition of the drops. Good agreement between the drop composition and the composition predicted by the phase diagram were observed. Various physical, chemical and structural properties of the Fe-Cu nanopowders are characterized in detail using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and thermogravimetry (TG) analysis. The overall chemical composition of the Fe-Cu alloy nanopowders and of the individual agglomerates is same as the composition of feed materials used. However, Cu was found to segregate to the surface of the nanopowders which is attributed to minimization of surface energy with Cu at the surface. The total weight loss observed in TG in flowing hydrogen indicates that the surface passive layer of Fe-Cu appears to be very thin compared to Fe. The consolidation behaviour of both Fe and Fe-Cu nanopowders was studied by both conventional and spark plasma sintering (SPS) and are discussed in chapter 4. The as collected nanopowders from the apparatus have extremely low apparent density. The powders were further subjected to soft milling in a ball mill under ethanol to disentangle the agglomerates there by improving the pack density. A tenfold improvement was achieved thus making it suitable for consolidation. Uniaxial compaction of these powders for conventional sintering at pressure below 200 MPa yielded compacts free from defects. However, at higher pressure the compacts cracks and delaminates during ejection stage. Analysis of the compaction curves helped us to understand various processes involved during compaction as well as providing explanation for lower green density of Fe-Cu powder compared to Fe. Conventional sintering of the nanopowders compacts were carried out in the flowing hydrogen atmosphere in a laboratory vacuum furnace over wide range of temperatures. Instrumented sintering experiments were also carried out in a dilatometer under hydrogen atmosphere to evaluate shrinkage rate at different temperatures. SPS were carried out under 10 Pa vacuum at a compaction pressure of 250 MPa in WC-Co die cavity. The stability, density and residual oxygen content of the sintered compacts were quantified. Detailed microstuctural analysis of the sintered samples were also carried out using optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy and quantitative composition analysis by EDS. Conventionally sintered compacts of both the powders showed stability only when sintered at 700°C and beyond. The maximum shrinkage/densification occured around 450°C for both the powders and the densification rate observed in Fe-Cu is three times higher than Fe. This enhanced densification in Fe-Cu is attributed to an enhanced diffusivity of Fe atoms in the transient liquid Cu layer formed at the interfaces. The microstructure of Fe-Cu is completely free from any separate oxide phase unlike in samples of Fe sintered at 700°C that contain ultrafine oxide grains. This was explained on the basis of role played by acrawax, a lubricant, admixed to increase the green density. Based on the sintered densities of both SPS and conventional sintered compacts, residual oxide content of the compacts sintered at different temperature and experimentally observed shrinkage rate a phenomenological model has been proposed for the possible sequence of processes occurring during sintering of these nanopowders. The major findings of this work are summarized in chapter 6 and chapter 7 details the scope for the future work.

Τα τελευταία χρόνια, υπάρχει έντονο ερευνητικό ενδιαφέρον για την φασματοσκοπία πλάσματος, η οποία βασίζεται στην μελέτη της ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας που εκπέμπεται όταν η ύλη βρίσκεται σε κατάσταση ολικού ή μερικού ιονισμού. Έτσι προκειμένου να δημιουργηθεί πλάσμα, απαιτείται να προσφερθεί στο ουδέτερο αρχικά δείγμα, ενέργεια σημαντικής ποσότητας. Κατά τη διεξαγωγή των πειραμάτων, την απαιτούμενη ενέργεια την παρείχαν δύο διαφορετικές πηγές: ένα laser Nd-YAG και ένας ηλεκτρικός σπινθηριστής. Οι φασματοσκοπικές αυτές μέθοδοι ονομάζονται Libs (Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy) και Sibs (Spark Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy) αντίστοιχα. Στην παρούσα ειδική ερευνητική εργασία, οι τεχνικές αυτές εφαρμόζονται για την επαγωγή πλάσματος σε δύο διαφορετικά δείγματα: σε ατμοσφαιρικό αέρα και σε προ-αναμεμειγμένα μίγματα υδρογονάνθρακα-αέρα. Αρχικά λοιπόν, μελετήθηκαν ποιοτικά τα φάσματα εκπομπής πλάσματος επαγόμενου από τους δύο σπινθήρες για να συλλεχθούν πληροφορίες για το οξειδωτικό μέσο, εν προκειμένω του αέρα και στη συνέχεια, συγκρίθηκαν με τα φάσματα εκπομπής πλάσματος σε φλόγες. Επιπλέον, η φασματοσκοπία πλάσματος χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την μελέτη μιγμάτων με διαφορετική αναλογία καυσίμου προς οξειδωτικό μέσο το κάθενα, μέγεθος που εκφράζεται μέσω του λόγου ισοδυναμίας,φ. Τέλος, συσχετίστηκε η ολική ένταση της μοριακής ταινίας του ελεύθερου ριζικού κυανίου (CN), ενδιάμεσο προϊόν της καύσης, με το φ όπου και διαπιστώθηκε η γραμμική σχέση που συνδέει τις παραπάνω ποσότητες. Αποτέλεσμα αυτής της εργασίας αποτελεί το γεγονός ότι οι τεχνικές αυτές θα μπορούσαν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σαν διαγνωστικά εργαλεία για τη μελέτη φλογών άγνωστης περιεκτικότητας σε καύσιμο όχι μόνο στους εργαστηριακούς χώρους αλλά και σε in-situ περιβάλλοντα. / Over the past few years, there has been an intense research interest over the plasma spectroscopy, which is based on the study of the electromagnetic radiation propagated by matter in total or partial ionized state. Hence, in order to create plasma, it is necessary to provide the neutral sample with a significant amount of energy. During the experimental procedures, the required energy was provided by two different energy sources, a laser Nd-YAG and an electrical scintillator. The afore-mentioned spectroscopic methods are called Libs (Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy) and Sibs (Spark Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy), respectively. In the present study, these techniques are applied to induce plasma in atmospheric air and in premixed flammable hydrocarbon-air mixtures. At first, the emission spectra of plasma induced by the two sparks were qualitatively analyzed in order to capture data concerning the oxidizing agent, namely the air. Then the spectra were compared to the spectra of the plasma in flame. Moreover, plasma spectroscopy was used to study combustible mixtures of different fuel concentrations, which are characterized by the equivalence ratio, φ. Finally, the total intensity of the molecular band of the free radical cyanogens (CN), known meta-stable product of the combustion was correlated to φ. This correlation demonstrates that the growth of the CN band with the amount of fuel in the mixture is evident and simple linear correlation exists between them. The major result of this study is the fact that these techniques could possibly be used as diagnostic and analytical tools for the study of flames of unknown fuel concentration, not only in the laboratory but also in field conditions.

Το θέμα της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς απαγωγέων υπερτάσεων (SPD), όταν αυτοί αποτελούν μέρος του εσωτερικού συστήματος αντικεραυνικής προστασίας για μια οικιακή εγκατάσταση. Αρχικά γίνεται μια αναφορά στα αίτια δημιουργίας κρουστικών υπερτάσεων στο δίκτυο διανομής, ενώ στη συνέχεια δίνεται έμφαση στις υπερτάσεις που προκαλούνται από άμεσα ή έμμεσα κεραυνικά πλήγματα στο σύστημα. Στα πλαίσια της μελέτης δημιουργήθηκε ένα μοντέλο προσομοίωσης που αναπαριστά ένα δίκτυο χαμηλής τάσης TN-C-S με δύο πανομοιότυπους οικιακούς καταναλωτές, όσον αφορά τη δομή της εσωτερικής ηλεκτρικής εγκατάστασής τους παρουσία ή μη διατάξεων αντικεραυνικής προστασίας. Σκοπός της προκειμένης μελέτης είναι να δειχθεί η βέλτιστη συνδεσμολογία των διατάξεων προστασίας μέσα σε εσωτερικές ηλεκτρικές εγκαταστάσεις έτσι ώστε να αποτρέπεται η ανάπτυξη επικίνδυνων τάσεων και ρευμάτων για τον άνθρωπο και τον εξοπλισμό της οικιακής εγκατάστασης. / The subject of this project is a study upon the dynamic performance of surge arresters as a part of the internal lightning protection system for a residential electrical installation. At first, a reference about the actions or the natural phenomena that cause surge overvoltages in low voltage systems is given in detail and is followed by an essential theoretical approach on the lighning phenomenon. Both the causes, the consequences and the conditions in which a lightning occurs are being analysed. Furthermore, the characteristics and the qualifications a Lightning Protection System needs to comply with, are given, according to the Greek Standard ΕΛΟΤ-1197 and the European Standards IEC 62305-2, IEC 61643-12. Along with writing this essay, a simulation model using Simulink-Matlab was produced. The model represents a LV TN-C-S system that distributes power to two households with identical internal electrical installation. The aim of the present study is to indicate the optimal connection of the surge protective devices (SPDs) in the domestic electrical installation in order to prevent the appearance of potentially dangerous overvoltages to the humans or to the household equipment.

Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif la caractérisation des propriétés physico-chimiques descéramiques de composition (1-x) BaTi0.8Zr0.2O3-x Ba0.7Ca0.3TiO3 préparées par frittage conventionnelet frittage flash (SPS). Les études structurales réalisées au voisinage du point triple (x≈ 0.32) à l’aidede la diffraction des RX de haute résolution (synchrotron) sur poudre ont introduit des modificationsmajeures sur le diagramme de phase température-composition déjà proposé. La réponseélectromécanique géante mesurée est alors corrélée à la dégénérescence du profil de l’énergie libreinduite par les instabilités structurales. De plus, la flexibilité de la polarisation sous contraintesthermique et électrique est couplée à un assouplissement de la maille cristalline. Ces deuxcaractéristiques contribuent ensemble à une réponse électromécanique colossale via une forteactivité des murs de domaine. La dégradation des propriétés diélectriques, ferroélectriques etpiézoélectriques pour les céramiques BCTZ (x=0.32 et 0.5) élaborées par frittage flash estessentiellement attribuée aux fluctuations importantes de composition et à la stabilisation de laconfiguration des murs de domaines avec la diminution de la taille des grains. / The aim of this work is to make a full characterization of the structural, microstructural, dielectric,ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties of the perovskite-structured oxides (1-x) BaTi0.8Zr0.2O3-xBa0.7Ca0.3TiO3 prepared by a conventional solid-state reaction method (conventional sintering) andSPS fabrication technique. Using high-resolution synchrotron x-ray powder diffraction, the structuralinvestigations carried out close to the triple point (x≈ 0.32) have introduced significant corrections tothe previously published composition-temperature phase diagram. The colossal electromechanicalresponse was then correlated to a strongly degenerate free energy landscape caused by structuralinstabilities. Furthermore, the coupling between the high polarization flexibility under electric andthermal stresses and the ‘lattice softening’ gives rise to a giant electromechanical response due tohigh domain wall activities. The decrease of the dielectric, ferroelectric and piezoelectric propertiesof BCTZ ceramics (x=0.32 and 0.5) processed by SPS was essentially attributed to the largecompositional fluctuations and stable domain wall configurations as the grain size decreased.

Aujourd’hui, les constructeurs automobiles continuent de chercher les technologies renouvelables face à la pénurie d’énergie et les problèmes d’émission de polluants. Un moyen important pour optimiser l’économie de carburant et réduire les émissions polluantes des moteurs à allumage commandés est le concept ‘downsizing’. Cependant, ce concept est limité par le phénomène de cliquetis dû aux conditions de haute température et haut pression. Dans cette étude, le contrôle de la concentration d’oxygène dans l’air est proposé. Car d’une part, la combustion enrichie en oxygène permet d’améliorer la densité de puissance de moteur avec le même niveau de pression d’admission. Cela permet soit de ‘booster’ la combustion pour augmenter la puissance du moteur ou de l’activer lorsque le moteur fonctionne à faible charge ou dans des conditions de démarrage à froid. D’autre part, une faible concentration en oxygène dans l’air (ou dilution de N2) par un système membranaire peut être considérée comme une alternative à la recirculation des gaz d’échappement. Les expériences ont été effectuées dans un moteur monocylindre ‘downsizing’ avec différents taux d’oxygène et richesse. L’étude de l’impact du contrôle de la concentration d’oxygène sur les caractéristiques de combustion et d’émissions a été effectuée pour plusieurs charges en fonctionnement optimum pour limiter la consommation spécifique de carburant. L’effet de la concentration en oxygène sur les caractéristiques de combustion du moteur a été simulé en utilisant le logiciel commercial AMESim avec le modèle de combustion développé par IFP-EN. En mettant en oeuvre des corrélations de la vitesse de combustion laminaire, déterminées au préalable durant ce travail, et délai d’auto-inflammation, les pressions dans les cylindres sont parfaitement calibrés avec une erreur maximale inférieure à 2% et l’intensité du cliquetis a pu être prédite. / Nowadays, car manufacturers continue to lead researches on new technologies facing to the energy shortage and pollutant emission problems. A major way to optimise fuel economy and reduce pollutant emissions for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines is the downsizing concept. However, this concept is unfortunately limited by ‘knock’ phenomena (abnormal combustion) due to high temperature and high pressure in-cylinder conditions. In the present study, control the oxygen concentration in air is proposed. Indeed, on the one hand, oxygen-enriched combustion can improve engine power density with the same intake pressure level. Thus, oxygen-enriched combustion can be used either as a booster to increase engine output or as a combustion enhancer when the engine operates at low loads or in cold start conditions. On the other hand, low oxygen concentration in air (or N2 dilution) can be considered as an alternative to exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). The experiments were carried out in a downsized single-cylinder SI engine with different rates of oxygen and equivalence ratios. The study of the impact of controlling oxygen concentration on the combustion characteristics and emissions was performed at several loads by optimizing the spark advance and the intake pressure to maintain the load and obtain a minimum value of indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC). The effect of oxygen concentration on the engine combustion characteristics was simulated by using the commercial software AMESim, with the combustion model developed by IFP-EN. By implementing correlations for the laminar burning velocity, determined previously during this study, and auto-ignition delay data base, the in-cylinder pressures were perfectly calibrated with a maximum pressure relative error less than 2%, and the knock intensity was predicted.

Face aux normes actuelles et futures, de plus en plus drastiques, concernant les émissions de polluants, les constructeurs automobiles cherchent en permanence à améliorer l'efficacité des moteurs à allumage commandé. Une des solutions les plus efficaces et applicables pour diminuer la quantité de polluants émis dans les gaz d’échappement (HC, CO, NOx) et réduire la consommation de carburant, est d’utiliser un mélange très pauvre (richesse du mélange inférieure à 0,6). Toutefois, ce concept de fonctionnement est limité par les systèmes d'allumage classiques qui ne peuvent pas garantir un allumage du mélange air / combustible dans de bonnes conditions, de manière à assurer une combustion complète, rapide et reproductible.Le sujet de cette thèse consiste en l'élaboration d'un nouveau système d'allumage basé sur une bougie d’allumage double, qui peut produire deux d'étincelles quasi-simultanées, dont la longueur cumulée est plusieurs fois plus élevée que celle d’étincelles produites par une bougie d'allumage classique. Pour valider ce système d'allumage, trois différents types d'analyses ont été réalisés: une analyse des paramètres électriques des décharges, un diagnostic du plasma par spectroscopie optique d'émission, et des essais in situ du système d'allumage sur deux moteurs à combustion interne avec analyse des gaz d'échappement et détermination des performances des moteurs.Ces tests ont révélé que l'utilisation du système d’allumage à double étincelle peut assurer une meilleure stabilité dans le fonctionnement du moteur (en particulier dans les conditions d'allumage difficiles, en utilisant des mélanges très pauvres) ; des performances accrues du moteur pour une même quantité de carburant consommé ; et une diminution de la quantité d’hydrocarbures imbrûlés et de monoxyde de carbone dans les gaz d'échappement, mais avec une plus grande émission d'oxydes d'azote par rapport à un système d'allumage classique. / Faced with the current and future more and more drastic standards for pollutant emissions, the car manufacturers are permanently trying to improve the efficiency of spark ignition engines. One of the most effective applicable solutions for reducing the quantity of pollutant emissions (HC, CO, NOx) from the exhaust gases and also to reduce the fuel consumption is to operate with very lean mixture (equivalent ratio lower than 0.6). However, this operation concept is limited by the actual ignition systems that cannot assure an air/fuel mixture ignition in good conditions, in order to assure a complete, fast and repeatable combustion. The subject of this thesis consists into developing of a new ignition system based on a double spark plug, which can produce two quasi-simultaneous spark discharges with cumulated length few times higher than the sparks produced by a conventional spark plug. For ignition system validation, three different types of analysis have been considered: the analysis of the discharges electrical parameters, the plasma diagnosis using optical emission spectroscopy methods and the tests of the ignition system on two internal combustion engines with the exhaust gases analysis and engine performances determination. The tests revealed that the utilization of the double spark ignition system can assure a better stability in engine operation (especially in difficult ignition conditions such using very lean mixtures), increased engine performances for the same amount of consumed fuel and it can provide a diminution of the unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide quantities from the exhaust gases, but with an increased quantity of nitrogen oxides, compared with a conventional ignition system.

The present work studies the use of a two-zone computer model to simulate the operation of an internal combustion engine with spark ignition fueled with alcohol fuels and gasohol. To fit the model to the experimental data, a parameter estimation technique was used and the heat transfer correlation that could better fit the tested fuels and engine was determined. The tested fuels were: hydrous ethanol, wet ethanol (from 10% to 40% of water, by volume), n-butanol, n-butanol/ethanol blend and gasohol. In addition to the experimental tests with the engine, tests with a packed distillation column under batch process were made in order to determine the energy efficiency involved between production and use as a fuel for hydrous ethanol and wet ethanol fuels. The results showed that the two-zone model was able to predict satisfactorily the behavior of all tested fuels, accurately obtaining the engine performance parameters. In terms of energy efficiency, wet ethanol fuels have advantage over hydrous ethanol fuel, especially in the case of 30% of water by volume, where energy efficiency reaches its maximum value, considering the distillation and engine combustion processes. The n-butanol fuel was capable of act as a surrogate for both hydrous ethanol and gasohol with efficiency, leading the engine to have good performance in the tested operational conditions and appearing, due to this, as an interesting alternative of renewable fuel to be inserted in the Brazilian energy matrix. / O presente trabalho investiga o uso de um modelo computacional de duas zonas para simular o funcionamento de um motor de combustão interna com ignição por centelha abastecido com álcoois combustíveis e gasolina. Para o ajuste do modelo fez-se uso de técnica de estimação de parâmetros e determinação da correlação de transferência de calor capaz de melhor se ajustar aos combustíveis e ao motor testados. Os combustíveis utilizados foram: etanol hidratado, etanol super-hidratado (de 10% a 40% de água, em volume), n-butanol, misturas de n-butanol e etanol e gasolina e etanol. Além dos testes experimentais com motor, testes de bancada com uma coluna de destilação recheada em regime descontínuo foram realizados a fim de determinar a eficiência energética do processo de produção e queima de etanol hidratado e super-hidratado. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o modelo de duas zonas é capaz de prever de maneira satisfatória o comportamento de todos os combustíveis testados, com determinação precisa de parâmetros de desempenho do motor. Em termos de eficiência energética, o etanol super-hidratado tem vantagem em relação ao etanol hidratado combustível, em especial quando com 30% de água em volume, onde a eficiência energética é máxima, considerados os processos de destilação e queima no motor. O n-butanol combustível usado mostrou-se capaz de substituir eficientemente tanto o etanol hidratado como a gasolina brasileira, levando o motor a ter boa performance nas condições operacionais testadas e aparecendo, dessa forma, como interessante alternativa de combustível renovável a ser inserida na matriz energética brasileira.

A eletrocirurgia é uma técnica cirúrgica que utiliza o bisturi elétrico para a realização do corte, dessecação e coagulação do tecido orgânico, diminuindo dessa forma os riscos de hemorragia. O bisturi elétrico usa o processo da faiscância para a realização do trabalho. Esse processo provoca, entre outras coisas, o aquecimento da água intracelular e, consequentemente, o rompimento da célula do tecido. Embora se saiba a quantidade de energia entregue pelo bisturi elétrico, pouco se sabe sobre as parcelas de energia envolvidas nos vários fenômenos do processo eletrocirúrgico, principalmente no corte, onde as células sofrem ablação por vaporização. Com base neste problema, foi desenvolvida esta pesquisa, que teve o objetivo de determinar a energia necessária para o corte eletrocirúrgico, através dos parâmetros elétricos envolvidos e da energia utilizada para a vaporização da água do tecido orgânico. O método desenvolvido foi testado em três experimentos, com várias séries de cortes específicos em cada. Demonstrou-se que da energia total que é entregue pelo bisturi, menos de 10% é utilizada para o corte, ou especificamente, para a vaporização da água do tecido. O restante da energia acaba sendo utilizada em outros processos que começarão a ser analisados em outros trabalhos. / Electrosurgery is a surgical technique that uses an electrosurgical device for cutting, drying (desiccation), and coagulation of organic tissue, thereby reducing the risk of bleeding. Electrosurgical device uses sparking phenomena for this purpose. This process causes heating of intracellular water and, consequently, the rupture of the cell in the organic tissue. Although the amount of energy delivered by the electrosurgical device is easy to know, little is known about the exactly amount of energy involved in the various phenomena of electrosurgical procedure, especially in cutting, where cells suffer ablation by vaporization Based on this was developed this research, which objective is to determine the energy required for the electrosurgical cutting through the electrical parameters involved and the energy used for the vaporization of water of organic tissue. The method developed was corted in three experiments, with a series of specific tests in each. It has been show that only about 10% of total energy is used for cutting, or specifically, for the vaporization of water of organic tissue. The rest of the energy is used in other processes that need more investigation to be understood.

A eletrocirurgia é uma técnica cirúrgica que utiliza o bisturi elétrico para a realização do corte, dessecação e coagulação do tecido orgânico, diminuindo dessa forma os riscos de hemorragia. O bisturi elétrico usa o processo da faiscância para a realização do trabalho. Esse processo provoca, entre outras coisas, o aquecimento da água intracelular e, consequentemente, o rompimento da célula do tecido. Embora se saiba a quantidade de energia entregue pelo bisturi elétrico, pouco se sabe sobre as parcelas de energia envolvidas nos vários fenômenos do processo eletrocirúrgico, principalmente no corte, onde as células sofrem ablação por vaporização. Com base neste problema, foi desenvolvida esta pesquisa, que teve o objetivo de determinar a energia necessária para o corte eletrocirúrgico, através dos parâmetros elétricos envolvidos e da energia utilizada para a vaporização da água do tecido orgânico. O método desenvolvido foi testado em três experimentos, com várias séries de cortes específicos em cada. Demonstrou-se que da energia total que é entregue pelo bisturi, menos de 10% é utilizada para o corte, ou especificamente, para a vaporização da água do tecido. O restante da energia acaba sendo utilizada em outros processos que começarão a ser analisados em outros trabalhos. / Electrosurgery is a surgical technique that uses an electrosurgical device for cutting, drying (desiccation), and coagulation of organic tissue, thereby reducing the risk of bleeding. Electrosurgical device uses sparking phenomena for this purpose. This process causes heating of intracellular water and, consequently, the rupture of the cell in the organic tissue. Although the amount of energy delivered by the electrosurgical device is easy to know, little is known about the exactly amount of energy involved in the various phenomena of electrosurgical procedure, especially in cutting, where cells suffer ablation by vaporization Based on this was developed this research, which objective is to determine the energy required for the electrosurgical cutting through the electrical parameters involved and the energy used for the vaporization of water of organic tissue. The method developed was corted in three experiments, with a series of specific tests in each. It has been show that only about 10% of total energy is used for cutting, or specifically, for the vaporization of water of organic tissue. The rest of the energy is used in other processes that need more investigation to be understood.

Le système barrière thermique, permettant la protection des aubes mobiles des turbines aéronautiques, est un système dont l'élaboration est complexe et nécessite de nombreuses étapes. L'utilisation du spark plasma sintering (SPS) a permis de réaliser des systèmes barrière thermique complets en une étape unique. Au-delà des possibilités industrielles de cette méthode, le SPS s'est avéré un outil de recherche précieux pour rapidement tester un vaste champ de compositions et d'ajouts d'éléments réactifs. Les premier essais et la modélisation de la diffusion dans le SPS ont permis de prévoir les phases du revêtement suite à l'étape de SPS. Les travaux se sont ensuite focalisés sur l'optimisation d'une composition de sous couche γ-γ' riche en platine dopée avec des éléments réactifs sur un substrat d'AM1. L'analyse chimique des revêtements SPS a révélé des taux de pollutions en soufre et carbone extrêmement faibles. Au vu de l'influence néfaste de ces éléments sur la tenue en oxydation cyclique ces analyses mettent en valeur la qualité des revêtements élaborés. Les performances des sous couches dopées, avec notamment du hafnium, de l'yttrium et du zirconium ont été évaluées lors d'essais de cyclage thermique à 1100°C sous air. La composition de revêtement γ-γ' la plus prometteuse a ensuite été comparée au système industriel β-(NiPt)Al avec la même barrière thermique de zircone yttriée déposée par EBPVD et le même substrat d'AM1. Les résultats obtenus montre une meilleure durée de vie des systèmes TBC avec sous couches γ-γ'. Par contre la remontée importante des éléments du superalliage dans le revêtement influence la durée de vie du système TBC comme cela a été montré par des dépôts conduits sur d'autres nuances de superalliages à base de nickel. Ces résultats montrent que pour les revêtements γ-γ' la prise en compte du revêtement dans le développement d'un superalliage est essentielle. / To protect turbines blades from excessive oxidation and to lower the temperature at the blade surface, a multilayer coating system has been developed in the past, i.e. the thermal barrier coating. The fabrication of TBC is expensive and demands numerous process steps. In this study, bond coatings have been fabricated by spark plasma sintering in a single step. This fast fabrication process permits to test a large range of bond coating compositions with different reactive elements such as Zr, Y and Hf on AM1 nickel base superalloy. From the first results, the data related to the diffusion during the SPS were calculated to predict the coating phases. Impurities levels were measured after SPS fabrication. Sulphur and carbon concentration were very low. These results highlight the great quality of coating made by spark plasma sintering, more particularly with a top coat also made by SPS. Then, a composition of γ-γ’ coating has been optimized for high life span during thermal cycling. The thermal cycling at 1100°C of TBC system with this optimized γ-γ’ bond coatings give better life span than the conventional system with β-(Ni,Pt)Al phase bond coating. After long thermal cycling, >1000*1h cycles, chemical elements from the substrate can diffuse in the thermally grown oxide, leading to its delamination. Thus, for increasing the life span of the whole system the bond coating has to be considered during the superalloy development.