Les sporozoïtes de Plasmodium sont injectés par un moustique Anophèle et infectent le foie où le parasite se développe avant l’initiation d'une phase symptomatique érythrocytaire. Le sporozoïte pénètre activement les hépatocytes en formant une vacuole parasitophore où il se multiplie. Des facteurs parasitaires et de l’hôte sont impliqués dans l’invasion des hépatocytes mais les mécanismes restent méconnus. Pour faciliter l’étude de l’infection, nous avons généré des parasites fluorescents grâce à une nouvelle stratégie GOMO. L’utilisation des parasites P. yoelii fluorescents et d’un modèle cellulaire de lignées permissives ou non à l’infection, nous a permis de caractériser les mécanismes moléculaires et les cinétiques d’invasion. Nous avons montré que l’invasion productive est précédée d’une phase de traversée cellulaire où le parasite forme des vacuoles transitoires, distinctes des vacuoles parasitophores. Le parasite se sert d’une perforine PLP1 pour sortir de cette vacuole transitoire et échapper à la dégradation par les lysosomes de la cellule. Nous avons étudié le rôle de différents facteurs de l’hôte lors de l’invasion productive, selon les espèces plasmodiales. Si CD81 est nécessaire pour l’infection par P. falciparum et P. yoelii, les parasites P. berghei et P. vivax peuvent infecter des cellules n’exprimant pas cette protéine. Nous avons identifié deux protéines de la superfamille CD36, SR-BI et CD36, qui jouent un rôle lors de l’invasion CD81-indépendante. Ces résultats contribuent à l’élucidation des mécanismes d’entrée du parasite dans le foie et orientent vers la découverte des ligands parasitaires impliqués qui pourront être des cibles vaccinales. / Plasmodium sporozoites are transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes and first infect the liver where the parasite replicates as a pre-requisite to the development of the pathogenic blood stage infection. Sporozoites infect hepatocytes by forming a parasitophorous vacuole differentiating into liver stages. Invasion involves parasite and host proteins but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. To facilitate monitoring of sporozoite invasion, we generated novel transgenic fluorescent parasites, using a new selection strategy termed GOMO (Gene Out Marker Out). Using fluorescent P. yoelii strains and a robust cellular system we further characterized the temporal and molecular mechanisms of sporozoite invasion. We document that sporozoite productive invasion is preceded by a phase of cell traversal, and show that during cell traversal sporozoites enter transient vacuoles, which are distinct from parasitophorous vacuoles. We also uncovered that the perforin-like protein mediates sporozoite egress from transient vacuoles and escape from degradation by the host cell lysosomes. We studied the role of host factors implicated during the productive invasion of rodent and human Plasmodium species. We knew that P. falciparum and P. yoelii sporozoites require CD81 for infection and that P. berghei and P. vivax can infect cells lacking CD81. We identified two members of CD36 superfamily, SR-BI and CD36, as host entry factors defining a CD81-independent entry route. These results pave the way toward the elucidation of the mechanisms of sporozoite invasion and the identification of parasite ligands that mediate host cell entry, which would constitute potential targets for a malaria vaccine.

Eimeria tenella é umas das principais espécies que causam a coccidiose aviária. Para se estudar o perfil de expressão gênico quantitativo em estágios infectantes bibliotecas de LongSAGE foram geradas a partir de merozoítos e esporozoítos. Mais de 35.000 tags foram obtidas, das quais, 9.516 eram únicas. Para a identificação e anotação de genes diferencialmente expressos, as tags foram extraídas, contadas e analisadas estatisticamente por um pacote desenvolvido pelo nosso grupo, SAGE Analysis. Um total de 197 seqüências foram reconstruídas e anotadas automaticamente. Foi observado uma expressão estágio-específica e perfil transcricional distinto entre os estágios. Em merozoítos, foram encontradas proteínas envolvidas na tradução e manutenção da conformação protéica e em esporozoítos, os resultados positivos foram relacionados à cromatina, transporte e atividade catalítica. Para validação da técnica, a expressão diferencial de um pequeno conjunto de genes foi quantificada por RT-qPCR. Os resultados demonstraram uma boa correlação entre estas duas plataformas. / Eimeria tenella is one of the most important causing agents of poultry coccidiosis. To study the quantitative gene expression profile in zoite stages of LongSage libraries were generated from merozoites and sporozoites. More than 35.000 tags were obtained, whose 9.516 were unique. For identification and annotation of differential expressed genes, tags were extracted, counted and submitted to statistical analysis by Sage Analysis, software developed by our group. A total of 197 tags were reconstructed and automatic annotated. Stage-specific expression genes and distinct transcriptional profile were observed between these stages. In merozoites the results were related to protein translation and folding, and in sporozoites the proteins were involved to chromatin structure, transport and catalytic activity. To LongSAGE validation, differential expression was quantified using RT-qPCR to a small group of genes. Good correlation was observed between these platforms.

Lors de mes travaux de thèse je me suis intéressée à l’invasion des hépatocytes par Plasmodium. Bien que certains récepteurs cellulaires mis en jeu aient déjà été identifiés tels que CD81 et SR-B1, les facteurs parasitaires restaient à identifier. J’ai testé différents facteurs parasitaires grâce à un protocole de test d’invasion de cellules HepG2 et HepG2/CD81 par des parasites complémentés avec différentes protéines. Suite à l’identification de la protéine P36 comme déterminant du choix de la voie d’entrée dans les hépatocytes, j’ai étudié les déterminants structuraux de cette protéine nécessaires à la détermination de la voie d’entrée. Pour cela j’ai complémenté des parasites délétés pour P36 avec des protéines chimériques exprimant les domaines d’un parasite utilisant à la fois les récepteurs CD81 et SR-B1 et des domaines d’un parasites ne pouvant utiliser que la voie CD81. J’ai identifié le second domaine à 6 cystéine de P36 comme déterminant du choix de la voie d’invasion. Afin d’étudier les interactions de P36 avec d’éventuels récepteurs cellulaires, j’ai produit cette protéine en système bactérien. Les protéines ont été utilisées pour réaliser des tests d’interactions (ELISA et SPR) avec des récepteurs d’intérêt : CD81, SR-B1, CD36, LIMPII et EphA2 qui n’ont malheureusement pas permis d’identifier le ligand de P36. Des anticorps sont également en cours de production, dans le but d’une part de tester s’ils sont capables de bloquer l’invasion des hépatocytes par Plasmodium et d’autre part de localiser la protéine chez le parasite. Enfin, j’ai étudié les polymorphismes des protéines P36 de parasites infectant l’homme. / During my thesis, I was interested in the study of the hepatocyte invasion by Plasmodium. Several cellular receptors are involved, such as CD81 and SRB1, but the parasitic factors required were unknown until now. I tested different parasitic factors thanks to an invasion test of HepG2 or HepG2/CD81 cells with parasites complemented with different proteins. Following the identification of the 6 cystein protein P36 as a determinants of the entry pathway, I studied the structural determinants of this protein which are involved in the hepatocytes’ entry pathway. To this end, I complemented parasites knock-out for P36 with chimeric proteins constituted of domains of a parasite using both CD81 and SRB1, and domains from a parasite using only CD81. I showed that the second 6 cystein domain of P36 is decisive in the entry pathway choice.In order to study the P36 interactions with potential cellular receptors, I developed a production protocol of this protein in bacteria. I used the recombinant protein to test the interactions (ELISA and SPR) with potential receptors: CD81, SRB1, CD36, LIMP2, Epha2. Unfortunately, no interaction has been detected. Antibodies are in production, in order to test whether they are capable to block the hepatocyte invasion by Plasmodium. They will also be used to localize the protein in the parasite. In the end, I studied the polymorphisms of P36 in human parasites.

L'épigénétique joue un rôle majeur dans le développement érythrocytaire de Plasmodium falciparum, tels que variation antigénique, pathogenèse, différenciation sexuée. Jusqu'à présent, ces éléments n'ont jamais été décrits chez les sporozoïtes. Pour caractériser la régulation épigénétique au niveau des sporozoïtes de P. falciparum, nous avons étudié les principaux régulateurs épigénétiques PfHP1 (P. falciparum hétérochromatine Protein 1) ainsi que PfSET6 et PfSET7 (méthyltransférases histone lysine). J'ai établi une cartographie génomique des marques épigénétiques répressives associées à l'hétérochromatine, et actives associées à l'euchromatine. J'ai identifié un nouveau mécanisme stade-spécifique de contrôle de l'expression génique, qui réprimés plusieurs gènes codant pour des protéines exportées. Ce mécanisme repose sur une expansion d'hétérochromatine. De plus, je démontre qu'un membre de la famille des gènes var, qui code pour le facteur de virulence PfEMP1 des stades sanguins, est exprimé à la surface des sporozoïtes. Cette localisation contraste avec les stades sanguins, où PfEMP1 est transporté à la surface des érythrocytes et participe à cytoadhérence. L'ensemble de ces résultats ouvre de nouvelles questions biologiques: quels sont les facteurs qui régulent la formation d'hétérochromatine chez les sporozoïtes? Quelle est la fonction de PfEMP1 sur la surface d'un sporozoïte? Mes conclusions indiquent un rôle putatif de PfEMP1 lors de la migration des sporozoïtes. En outre, l'expression, à la surface du sporozoïte, d'un antigène polymorphique et spécifique de souche pourrait expliquer la réponse immunitaire souche-spécifique, induite par les sporozoïtes atténués. / Epigenetic mechanisms control key processes during Plasmodium falciparum blood stage development such as antigenic variation, malaria pathogenesis and sexual commitment. However, the epigenetic landscape has not been reported for the sporozoites stage. To characterize epigenetic regulation in sporozoites, we tested the major epigenetic regulators P. falciparum Heterochromatin Protein 1 (PfHP1) and the histone lysine methyltransferases (PfSET6 and PfSET7) in P. falciparum sporozoites. I obtained a reliable genome-wide occupancy data for repressive heterochromatin and active euchromatin marks. Notably, I discovered an unprecedented stage specific mechanism of silencing, which represses several hundreds of genes, encoding parasite surface exported proteins. This is based on an expansion of facultative heterochromatin boundaries in sporozoites. Moreover, I demonstrate that a single member of the polymorphic var gene family, encoding the blood stage virulence factor PfEMP1, is expressed at the surface of sporozoites. This is in contrast to blood stages where PfEMP1 is transported to the erythrocyte surface participating in cytoadhesion. Overall, my findings rise new biological questions including what are the factors that regulate heterochromatin boundaries and what is the function of a virulence-associated surface antigen in sporozoites stage. My findings point to a putative function of this adhesion molecule in sporozoites migration. Moreover, the expression of a highly polymporphic and strain-specific antigen on the surface of sporozoites might provide a molecular explanation for the strain-specific protective immune response induced by attenuated sporozoites.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Vani Xavier de Oliveira Junior / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia/Química, 2015. / Plasmodium gallinaceum, por Maciel e colaboradores, iniciaram-se estudos para viabilizar a sua possivel utilizacao como farmaco. Nosso grupo de pesquisa sintetizou e testou alguns peptideos derivados da angiotensina II, dos quais foram obtidos trabalhos com resultados promissores. Com base nos resultados publicados e no intuito de encontrar um antimalarico eficaz foi proposto, no presente trabalho, um estudo com novos peptideos derivados da angiotensina II visando a atividade antiplasmodica em esporozoitas de Plasmodim gallinaceum e em esquizontes (forma de anel), na fase eritrocitica de Plasmodium falciparum. Os peptideos utilizados nesse trabalho foram sintetizados pelo metodo da fase solida, nas estrategias Fmoc e t-Boc, purificados por HPLC e caracterizados por LC/ESI-MS, sendo sua conformacao estudada por CD. Os estudos da atividade litica foram realizados utilizando esporozoitas maduros extraidos de glandulas salivares de mosquitos Aedes aegypti infectados. Os esporozoitas foram incubados com os peptideos por 1 hora a 37 oC e a integridade da membrana foi monitorada por microscopia de fluorescencia. Os ensaios no ciclo eritrocitico de Plasmodium falciparum foram realizados (in vitro) utilizando uma concentracao de 10-8 mol L-1 dos peptideos, em uma cultura na forma de esquizonte sincronizada da cepa W2 de Plasmodium falciparum, mantendo 5% de hematocritos e 2% de parasitemia num periodo de 24 horas a 37 oC sob atmosfera gasosa controlada. Desses resultados foi observado que os peptideos ciclicos apresentaram conformacao do tipo dobra-¿ÀII e foram mais ativos em esporozoitas de Plasmodium gallinaceum, com atividades acima de 90%. Os estudos na invasao de eritrocitos infectados dos peptideos lineares apresentaram atividade equipotente a Ang II, com 49% de celulas nao infectadas e tambem apresentaram atividade acima de 90% em Plasmodium gallinaceum. Os peptideos mais ativos nao apresentaram resposta contractil, nem favorecem a hemolise. Esse tipo de abordagem auxilia no entendimento da participacao de cada residuo de aminoacido na atividade biologica, abrindo novas perspectivas para o desenho de novos quimioterapicos, que possam contribuir com avancos para drogas eficazes. / Angiotensin II antiplasmodial property against Plasmodium gallinaceum sporozoites was related by Maciel et. al. Studies were made to enable its possible use as a drug due to vasopressor activity. Our research group synthesized and tested some peptides related to angiotensin II, and we obtained promising results. Based on published results and in order to report an effective antimalarial we propose here a study of new peptides related to angiotensin II to evaluate the antiplasmodial activity in Plasmodim gallinaceum sporozoites and in erythrocytic phase schizonts of Plasmodium falciparum (ring-forms). The peptides used in this work were synthesized by Solid Phase, Fmoc and t-Boc strategy, purified by HPLC, characterized by LC/ESI-MS, and the conformational studies were performed by Circular Dichroism. Studies of lytic activity were performed using mature sporozoites recovered from salivary glands of infected Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. The sporozoites were incubated with the peptides for 1 hour at 37 oC and membrane integrity was monitored by fluorescence microscopy. The red blood cells schizont invasion in vitro assay were performed in a synchronous schizont medium culture of Plasmodium falciparum W2 strain maintaining 5% hematocrit and 2% parasitemia in a period of 24 hours at 37 oC under controlled gaseous atmosphere. From these results we observed that cyclic analogs that tend to a â-turn conformation were equipontent to angiotensin II, with 49% of no infected cells and also presented activity above 90% in Plasmodium gallinaceum. The most active short peptide presented neither contractile response nor hemolysis. These kinf of approach lead us to understanding the role of each amino acid residue in biological activity. It opens new perspectives to new drugs design that can contribute to advances for effective drugs.

Eimeria tenella é umas das principais espécies que causam a coccidiose aviária. Para se estudar o perfil de expressão gênico quantitativo em estágios infectantes bibliotecas de LongSAGE foram geradas a partir de merozoítos e esporozoítos. Mais de 35.000 tags foram obtidas, das quais, 9.516 eram únicas. Para a identificação e anotação de genes diferencialmente expressos, as tags foram extraídas, contadas e analisadas estatisticamente por um pacote desenvolvido pelo nosso grupo, SAGE Analysis. Um total de 197 seqüências foram reconstruídas e anotadas automaticamente. Foi observado uma expressão estágio-específica e perfil transcricional distinto entre os estágios. Em merozoítos, foram encontradas proteínas envolvidas na tradução e manutenção da conformação protéica e em esporozoítos, os resultados positivos foram relacionados à cromatina, transporte e atividade catalítica. Para validação da técnica, a expressão diferencial de um pequeno conjunto de genes foi quantificada por RT-qPCR. Os resultados demonstraram uma boa correlação entre estas duas plataformas. / Eimeria tenella is one of the most important causing agents of poultry coccidiosis. To study the quantitative gene expression profile in zoite stages of LongSage libraries were generated from merozoites and sporozoites. More than 35.000 tags were obtained, whose 9.516 were unique. For identification and annotation of differential expressed genes, tags were extracted, counted and submitted to statistical analysis by Sage Analysis, software developed by our group. A total of 197 tags were reconstructed and automatic annotated. Stage-specific expression genes and distinct transcriptional profile were observed between these stages. In merozoites the results were related to protein translation and folding, and in sporozoites the proteins were involved to chromatin structure, transport and catalytic activity. To LongSAGE validation, differential expression was quantified using RT-qPCR to a small group of genes. Good correlation was observed between these platforms.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 2005. / Typescript (photocopy).

Plasmodien spp. sind obligat intrazellulär lebende Parasiten, welche einen evolutionär konservierten aktinabhängigen molekularen Motor für die Fortbewegung und den Wirtszellein- und -austritt nutzen. In dieser Arbeit werden die Aktinregulatoren Adenylyl- Zyklase- assoziierte Protein (C-CAP), Profilin sowie die Aktin depolymerizierenden Faktoren 1 und 2 (ADF1, ADF2) in Plasmodium berghei charakterisiert. Die Geninaktivierung von C-CAP besitzt keinen Einfluss auf die Entwicklung von pathogenen Blutstadien. C-cap(-) Ookineten bewegen sich jedoch deutlich langsamer, sind aber in der Lage den invertebraten Wirt zu infizieren. Defekte treten während der extrazellulären Replikationsphase im Mosquito auf und führen zu Abbruch des Lebenszykluses. Die erfolgreiche Komplementierung der Defekte mit dem orthologen Gen aus Cryptosporidium parvum CpC-CAP bestätigt die funktionale Redundanz zwischen beiden Proteinen. Profilin, als ein weiteres G-Aktin bindendes Protein, ist hingegen nicht in der Lage die Defekte des c-cap(-) Parasiten auszugleichen. Mittels transgener Parasiten welche ein C-CAPmCherry Fusionsprotein exprimieren, wird das C-CAP Protein im Zytoplasma lokalisiert. Erstmals wird mit dieser Arbeit ein G-Aktin bindendes Protein, C-CAP beschrieben, welches eine essentielle Funktion während der Oozystenreifung in Plasmodium berghei besitzt. Die Transkription der Aktinregulatoren Profilin, ADF1 und ADF2 wird in Sporozoiten drastisch herunterreguliert und Profilin kann als Protein nicht mehr nachgewiesen werden. Um die Funktion von C-CAP und Profilin zu überprüfen, wurden beide Proteine spezifisch in Sporozoiten überexprimiert. Diese Parasiten sind nicht in der Lage die Speicheldrüsen des Wirtes zu besiedeln, was zum Abbruch des Lebenszykluses führt. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse entwickele ich ein „minimalistisches“ Model zur Beschreibung der Aktinregulation in Sporozoiten in welchem das ADF1 als regulatorisches Protein im Mittelpunkt steht. / Plasmodium spp. are obligate intracellular parasites, which employ an conserved actin-dependent molecular motor machinery that facilitates their motility, host cell invasion and egress. In this work I report implications of the actin-regulators adenylyl cyclase-associated protein (C-CAP), profilin and actin depolymerization factor 1 and 2 (ADF1, ADF2) in distinct and previously unanticipated cellular processes during the life cycle of in the rodent malarial parasite Plasmodium berghei. Fluorescent tagging of the endogenous C-CAP genetic locus with mCherry revealed cytosolic distribution of the protein. Gene deletion demonstrates that the G-actin binding protein C-CAP is entirely dispensable for the pathogenic blood stages. Ookinetes show reduced motility, but are competent infecting the mosquito host. Defects emerging in the extracellular replication phase, leading to attenuation of oocyst maturation. Successful trans-species complementation with the C. parvum C-CAP ortholog, rescues the c-cap(-) phenotype and proves functional redundancy. The actin regulator profilin fails to rescue the defects of c-cap(-) parasites, despite sharing its actin sequestering activity with C-CAP. Taken together, C-CAP is the first G-actin sequestering protein of Plasmodium species that is not required for motility but performs essential functions during oocyst maturation. Characterization of the actin regulators profilin, ADF1 and ADF2 revealed dramatic transcriptional down-regulation and the absence of the profilin protein in sporozoites. To test whether G-actin binding proteins interfere with sporozoite functions, I ectopically overexpressed of profilin and C-CAP stage-specifically in sporozoites. This conducted to abolishment of salivary gland invasion and lifecycle arrest. Based on these unexpected findings and the available literature data, I developed a “minimalistic model” for actin regulation in sporozoites that predicts ADF1 as the main actin-turnover regulating factor.