O aparecimento e a propagação de fissuras nos elementos estruturais de uma ponte de aço podem ser resultantes de flutuações de carregamento. Os elementos soldados são suscetíveis ao aparecimento de descontinuidades internas localizadas nas soldas e são bem sensíveis às variações de tensões. A consideração da redistribuição dos esforços entre os elementos da estrutura têm importância relevante no planejamento do custo de recuperação. Desenvolve-se um modelo de análise em vigas de pontes de aço para simulação de abertura de fissuras ocasionadas por carregamento cíclico. Esse modelo considera duas alternativas possíveis para governar a propagação da fissura. A fase inicial é baseada na formulação da mecânica da fratura linear elástica a qual é geralmente utilizada na análise de fissuras devido à fadiga em estruturas de aço. O modelo é expandido para consideração dos conceitos de mecânica da fratura elasto-plástico. Durante inspeções de pontes de aço é possível aplicar uma técnica não destrutiva na determinação de variações de freqüências naturais e com esse artifício auxiliar na localização e verificação da amplitude de fissuras. A diminuição da rigidez do elemento estrutural é obtida através de uma técnica inversa. São desenvolvidos algoritmos correspondentes aos modelos simplificados para implementação em microcomputadores, sendo os resultados numéricos obtidos, comparados com as soluções calculadas através de um código de cálculo largamente utilizado em análises numéricas. / Crack formation and growth in steel bridge structural elements may be due to loading oscillalions. The welded elements are liable to internal discontinuities along welded joints and sensible to stress variations. The effort redistribution among the structural elements are very important to evaluate repairing costs. In this work a steel bridge beam model has been proposed to simulate crack openings due to cyclic loads. Two possibilities have been considered to model crack propagation. The initial phase is based on the linear fracture mechanics which is often adopted to analyse fracture formation in steel structure due to fatigue. The model is extended to incorporate elastoplastic fracture mechanic concepts. For steel bridge inspections, it is possible to adopt a non destructive technique to quantify the structure eigenvalue variation that will be used to help the localisation and size evaluation of the grown fracture. The structural element stiffness reduction is obtained by inverse analysis. The corresponding numerical algorithms to be implemented in microcomputers are proposed for those simplified models. Numerical results obtained by applying those developed codes are compared with the solutions achieved by using other well known computer software.

This thesis treats the fatigue assessment process of steel bridges. The purpose is to identify areas with potential of enhancement with an overall aim of attaining a longer service life. The aging bridge stock in Sweden and in many other developed countries is an impending economical burden. Many bridges have reached their expected service life and increased axle loads, speeds, and traffic intensity further accelerate the deterioration. An immediate replacement of all our bridges approaching their expected service life will not be possible. For economical and environmental reasons, effort should be put on extending the theoretically safe service life as far as possible.  Fatigue is one of the major reasons limiting the service life of steel bridges .A specific example is the Söderström Bridge in Stockholm, Sweden. Fatigue cracks have been found in the webs of the main beams and theoretical assessments have shown an exhausted service life. As a mean to reduce the uncertainties in the theoretical assessments a monitoring campaign was started in 2008 and continued in periods until 2011. The first continuous period of 43 days of measurements in 2008 forms the experimental foundation for this thesis. A fatigue life prediction involves (i) an estimation of the load effect, (ii) an estimation of the resistance, and (iii) the selection of a prediction model. This thesis treats in some sense all three of them. Considering part (i), the load effect, a theoretical study on the influence of dynamics has been performed. The quasi static approach suggested in the standards does not necessarily reflect the true dynamic behavior of the structure. Performing a dynamic moving load analysis gives for all cases studied a more favorable fatigue life. A further enhancement of the assessment is to perform in situ measurements. The uncertainties related to dynamics, loads, and structural behavior are thereby captured in the response. Routines for processing the measured response and performing life predictions are treated, moreover the quality of the measured response. The resistance, part (ii), in form of the fatigue endurance has a funda- mental influence on the fatigue life. As an attempt to reach a more adequate fatigue endurance a refined assessment of a typical joint is performed using linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). A descriptive detail category is suggested which renders a somewhat more favorable resistance. Part (iii), the prediction model, is treated considering the safety format. A reliability-based model is suggested which enables a consideration of the uncertainties in each stochastic variable. Thereby, all aforementioned parts and uncertainties can be combined within the same prediction. The reliability-based model is used for a code calibration of partial safety factors to be used in semi-probabilistic assessments according to the standards. The implementation of the suggested procedures is shown with a numerical example. The outcome should not be generalized but the example clearly shows an increase in fatigue life with the proposed enhancements of the assessment procedure. / <p>QC 20130917</p>

Conventional continuous steel bridges only exhibit composite behavior in the positive moment region. Similar composite action may also be achieved in the negative moment region by casting a bottom concrete slab between the points of inflection. Such a section is referred to as "double composite" since it is composite in both the positive and negative moment regions. Savings in double composite bridges arise because expensive steel is replaced by inexpensive concrete to carry compressive loads. Although double composite bridges have been designed and constructed since at least 1978 there has been limited research. Thus, current designs rely on existing provisions for designing conventional 'single' composite bridges. This fails to fully exploit the advantages or recognize the weaknesses, if any, of double composite action. This thesis presents findings from a cooperative research project involving USF/URS/FDOT in which full-scale tests and theoretical analyses were carried to develop appropriate limit state rules for designing double composite bridges. A 4 ft. deep, 48 ft. long, 16 ft. wide box girder bridge representing the entire negative moment section at a support of a continuous full-size box girder bridge was fabricated and tested at FDOT's Structural Research Center, Tallahassee under fatigue, service and ultimate loading. Based on the findings from these tests and non-linear finite element analyses conducted by USF, URS proposed new design rules. This thesis focuses on the applications of these rules to develop a model design example for use by bridge engineers. The example was specifically selected from AISI so that a cost comparison with conventional design could be made. For completeness, an overview of the experimental results is also included in the thesis.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2005. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xi, 188 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 111-115).

Thesis (M.C.E.)--University of Delaware, 2006. / Principal faculty advisor: Dennis R. Mertz, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Includes bibliographical references.

O aparecimento e a propagação de fissuras nos elementos estruturais de uma ponte de aço podem ser resultantes de flutuações de carregamento. Os elementos soldados são suscetíveis ao aparecimento de descontinuidades internas localizadas nas soldas e são bem sensíveis às variações de tensões. A consideração da redistribuição dos esforços entre os elementos da estrutura têm importância relevante no planejamento do custo de recuperação. Desenvolve-se um modelo de análise em vigas de pontes de aço para simulação de abertura de fissuras ocasionadas por carregamento cíclico. Esse modelo considera duas alternativas possíveis para governar a propagação da fissura. A fase inicial é baseada na formulação da mecânica da fratura linear elástica a qual é geralmente utilizada na análise de fissuras devido à fadiga em estruturas de aço. O modelo é expandido para consideração dos conceitos de mecânica da fratura elasto-plástico. Durante inspeções de pontes de aço é possível aplicar uma técnica não destrutiva na determinação de variações de freqüências naturais e com esse artifício auxiliar na localização e verificação da amplitude de fissuras. A diminuição da rigidez do elemento estrutural é obtida através de uma técnica inversa. São desenvolvidos algoritmos correspondentes aos modelos simplificados para implementação em microcomputadores, sendo os resultados numéricos obtidos, comparados com as soluções calculadas através de um código de cálculo largamente utilizado em análises numéricas. / Crack formation and growth in steel bridge structural elements may be due to loading oscillalions. The welded elements are liable to internal discontinuities along welded joints and sensible to stress variations. The effort redistribution among the structural elements are very important to evaluate repairing costs. In this work a steel bridge beam model has been proposed to simulate crack openings due to cyclic loads. Two possibilities have been considered to model crack propagation. The initial phase is based on the linear fracture mechanics which is often adopted to analyse fracture formation in steel structure due to fatigue. The model is extended to incorporate elastoplastic fracture mechanic concepts. For steel bridge inspections, it is possible to adopt a non destructive technique to quantify the structure eigenvalue variation that will be used to help the localisation and size evaluation of the grown fracture. The structural element stiffness reduction is obtained by inverse analysis. The corresponding numerical algorithms to be implemented in microcomputers are proposed for those simplified models. Numerical results obtained by applying those developed codes are compared with the solutions achieved by using other well known computer software.

This thesis treats virtual sensing for fatigue assessment of steel bridges. The purpose is to develop avirtual sensing method to use in the fatigue assessment process. The aim for the virtual sensing method is to only depend on strain measurements located on the bridge structure. The service life of bridges is often limited by fatigue and amending bridge design to improve fatigue resistance was developed in the 1970s. There are several bridges in Sweden, Europe and other countries that have exceeded their theoretical service life with regard to fatigue, and the need to replace them isboth a environmental and economical issue. The bridge over Rautasjokk north of Kiruna, Sweden is a specific example where the theoretical service life is limited by fatigue. Uncertainties in the theoretical fatigue assessment of bridges can be reduced by measuring strains atthe fatigue critical details, and therefore lead to a longer theoretical service life. Monitoring is, however,an expensive method and the procedure of installation and administration requires working time, and monitoring can only provide information at the gauge location. Hence, it is of great interest to optimizethe monitoring system. Virtual sensing is a method that could provide an alternative to conventionalmeasuring techniques. Virtual sensing combine measurement data with information from a model. Virtual sensing for fatigue assessment of the Rautasjokk Bridge was evaluated developing two methods. Both methods uses a finite element model of the bridge combined with strain measurements. The measurements were obtained on February 14 2018 and included a time signal and strain variations at six different locations of the structure. The accuracy of the virtual sensing methods were evaluated by comparing the fatigue damage of virtual sensing with the fatigue damage calculated using measured strains. The fatigue calculations were based on methods presented in the Eurocode EN-1993-1-9. The first method was based on the idea to find a relation between groups of stress ranges for two gauge locations on the bridge. The stress ranges were established by loading influence lines obtained from the finite element model with a fictitious train and the difference between two gauges was stored in a vector, the correlation vector. The correlation vector was applied on the measured stress ranges of the first gauge to estimate the actual stress ranges of the second gauge. No relation between groups of stress ranges for different loading cases was found and the correlation vector method for virtual sensing is not a sufficiently accurate method to apply in the fatigue assessment of the Rautasjokk Bridge. The second method was based on finding a relation between each stress range instead of a group of stress ranges. Influence lines from the finite element model were used to find a relation between each stress range of two gauges. Their relation was stored in a matrix, the correlation matrix. The matrix was applied on the measured stress ranges of the first gauge to estimate the actual stress ranges of the second gauge. The correlation matrix method for virtual sensing estimate the fatigue damage sufficiently accurate at the bridge locations where local stress ranges have the greatest impact on the fatigue damage. Results obtained through virtual sensing only include the same parameters that were used as inputs in the method. A credible virtual sensing method is crucial in order to achieve reliable results. In general, a virtual sensing method requires an extent amount of input data to validate its reliability. Further studies are required to investigate how the uncertainties of the correlation matrix affect the fatigue assessment.

The use of high strength steel has the potential to reduce the amount of steel used in bridge structures and thereby facilitate a more sustainable construction. The amount of steel and what steel grade that can be used in bridge structures and other cyclic loaded structures are often limited by a material degradation process called fatigue. The fatigue resistance of steel bridges are to a large extent depending on the design of structural details and connections. The design engineer is limited by a few pre-existing structural details and connections – with rather poor fatigue resistance – to choose from when designing steel bridges, and is therefore often forced to increase the overall dimensions of the structure in order to cope with the design requirements of fatigue. This licentiate thesis aims at increasing the fatigue resistance of fatigue prone structural details and connections by implementing new and innovative structural solutions to the already pre-existing details given in the design standards. A typical fatigue prone detail is the vertical stiffener at an intermediate cross-beam, which will be in focus. By improving the fatigue resistance, less steel material will be required for the construction of new steel bridges and composite bridges of steel and concrete. It is shown in this thesis and the appended papers that the use of high strength steel for bridge structures can considerably reduce the amount of steel used, the steel cost and the harmful emissions. However, this is only true if the fatigue strength of critical details can be substantially improved. Furthermore, a few new and innovative structural details and modifications to already existing details are proposed in this thesis and in the appended papers, that have the potential to increase the fatigue resistance of steel bridges and composite bridges of steel and concrete. However, further analyses are required in order to make these structural details viable for construction. / Genom användandet av höghållfast stål så kan en mindre mängd material användas som i sin tur leder till ett mer hållbart byggande. Mängden stål och vilken stålkvalité som kan användas vid byggandet av stålbroar och andra cykliskt belastade konstruktioner avgörs ofta av nedbrytningsprocessen utmattning. Utmatningskapaciteten hos stålbroar är till stor del beroende av brons anslutningsdetaljer. Brokonstruktören har vid designstadiet ett begränsat antal beprövade anslutningsdetaljer att välja bland – vilka ofta har relativt låg utmattningskapacitet – och konstruktören är därmed ofta tvungen att öka konstruktionens dimensioner för att klara av kraven gällande utmattning. Den har licentiatuppsatsen har till syfte att förbättra utmattningskapaciteten för utmattningsbenägna anslutningsdetaljer i stål genom att införa nya och innovativa anslutningsdetaljer, bland de redan existerande detaljerna som finns i de olika standarderna. En utmattningskritisk detalj som kommer att ligga i fokus är anslutningen mellan livavstyvningen och tvärförbanden hos en I-balk. Genom att förbättra utmattningskapaciteten så kan en mindre mängd stålmaterial användas vid byggandet av stålbroar och samverkansbroar i betong och stål. I denna uppsatsen kunde det påvisas att höghallfast stål for broar kan betydligt sänka mängden stålmaterial, stålkostnaden och koldioxidutsläppen. Dock så gäller detta enbart om utmattningskapaciteten for kritiska anslutningsdetaljer kan ökas avsevärt. Dessutom, som en del av den har uppsatsen så har ett par nya och innovativa anslutningsdetaljer föreslagits som har potential att forbättra utmattningskapaciteten. Dock, så krävs ytterligare studier for att dessa förslag skall kunna användas i byggnation av nya stålbroar. / <p>QC 20190925</p>

The collapse of the I-35W Bridge in Minneapolis, MN on August 1, 2007 brought into question the design and inspection of gusset plates in steel truss bridges. The experimental tests performed in this research study the sway-buckling strength and behavior of large-scale steel gusset plates in an isolated truss connection. Parameters studied include plate thickness,combination member loading, initial out-of-plane imperfection, diagonal compression member out-of-plane flexural stiffness, corrosion, and alternative retrofits to increase lateral stiffness. The flexural stiffness of the diagonal compression member and retrofit designs were unique to the testing program. The variables monitored during testing include gusset plate surface stresses and strains, member axial strains, out-of-plane displacement of the gusset plate free edge, and buckling capacity. The results were compared with previously established design models for predicting buckling capacity of gusset plates which include the Whitmore effective width, the Modified-Thornton method, and the FHWA Load Rating Guidelines. A parametric finite element model was developed to determine the lateral stiffness of the gusset plate connection and the additional stiffness provided by the alternative retrofit options. The results showed interaction between the diagonal compression member and gusset plate occurs, which affects sway-buckling capacity. Combination of member loads showed evidence of detrimental effects on sway-buckling capacity. Corrosion of the gusset plates along the top edge of the bottom chord did not lead to significant reduction in sway-buckling capacity. The two retrofit designs showed increases in both lateral stiffness and buckling capacity as well as economic benefits over traditional retrofit methods. Comparison of the results to the current design guidelines showed that the current methods are conservative and do not accurately represent the true behavior of gusset plate connections. The research concludes with two proposed models for future use in design and retrofit of gusset plates. The first is a member-gusset plate interaction model based on a stepped column analogy that takes into account the effects of member flexural stiffness and gusset plate stiffness. The second is a general design guideline developed for retrofit of gusset plate connections dominated by sway-buckling behavior which uses a stiffness based approach to increase the capacity of gusset plate connections. / Graduation date: 2012

<p></p><p>Visual inspection is the primary means of ensuring the safety and functionality of in-service bridges in the United States and owners spend considerable resources on such inspections. While the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and many state departments of transportation have guidelines related to inspector qualification, training, and certification, an inspector’s actual capability to identify defects in the field under these guidelines is unknown. This research aimed to address the knowledge gap surrounding visual inspection performance for steel bridges in order to support future advances in inspection and design procedures. Focusing primarily on fatigue crack detection, this research also considered the ability of inspectors to accurately and consistently estimate section loss in steel bridge members. </p> <p> </p> <p>Inspection performance was evaluated through a series of simulated bridge inspections performed in representative in-situ conditions. First, this research describes the results from 30 hands-on, visual inspections performed on full size bridge specimens with known fatigue cracks. Probability of Detection (POD) curves were fit to the inspection results and the 50% and 90% detection rate crack lengths were determined. The variability in performance was large, and only a small amount of the variance could be explained by individual characteristics or environmental conditions. Based on the results, recommendations for improved training methods, inspection procedures, and equipment were developed. Above all, establishment of a performance based qualification system for bridge inspectors is recommended to confirm that a satisfactory level of performance is consistently achieved in the field. </p> <p> </p> <p>Long term, managing agencies may eschew traditional hands-on bridge inspection methods in favor of emerging technologies imagined to provide improved results and fewer logistical challenges. This research investigated the potential for unmanned aircraft system (UAS) assistance during visual inspection of steel bridges. Using the same specimens as in the hands-on inspections, four UAS-assisted field inspections and 19 UAS-assisted desk inspections were performed. A direct comparison was made between performance in the hands-on and UAS-assisted inspections, as well as between performance in the two types of UAS-assisted inspections. Again, significant variability was present in the results suggesting that human factors continue to have a substantial influence on inspection performance, regardless of inspection method. </p> <p> </p> <p>Finally, to expand the findings from the crack detection inspections, the lower chord from a deck truss was used to investigate variability in the inspection of severely corroded steel tension members. Five inspectors performed a hands-on inspection of the specimen and four engineers calculated the load rating for the same specimen. Significant variability was observed in how inspectors recorded thickness measurements during the inspections and engineers interpreted the inspection reports and applied the code requirements. </p><br><p></p>