Fatigue is among the most critical forms of deterioration damage that occurs tosteel bridges. It causes a decline of the safety level of bridges over time. Therefore,the performance of steel bridges, which may be seriously affected by fatigue, shouldbe assessed and predicted. There are several levels of uncertainty involved in thecrack initiation and propagation process; therefore the probabilistic methods canprovide a better estimation of fatigue lives than deterministic methods. Whenthere are recurring similar details which may have correlation with each other andbe regarded as a system, there are distinct advantages to analyze them from asystem reliability perspective. It allows the engineer to identify the importance ofan individual detail or the interaction between details with respect to the overallperformance of the system. The main aim of this licentiate thesis is to evaluate probabilistic methods for reliabilityassessment of steel bridges, from both a single detail level and a systemlevel. For single details, an efficient simulation technique is desired. The widelyapplied Monte Carlo simulation method provides accurate estimation, however, isvery time-consuming. The Subset simulation method is investigated as an alternativeand it shows great feasibility in dealing with a multi-dimensional limit statefunction and nonlinear crack propagation. For larger systems, the spatial correlationis considered between details. An equicorrelation-based modelling approachhas been proposed as supplement to common simulation techniques to estimate thesystem reliability analytically and significantly reduce the simulation time. Withcorrelation considered, the information of one accessible detail could be used topredict the status of the system. While reliability analysis aims for a specific safety level, risk analysis aims to findthe most optimal solution. With consequences considered, a risk-based decisionsupport framework is formulated for the selected system, which is presented asa decision tree. It reveals that the decisions based on reliability assessment canbe different from those based on risk analysis, since they have different objectivecriteria. / Utmattning är en av de mest allvarliga nedbrytningsmekanismer som stålbroarutsätts för. Den orsakar en försämrad säkerhet för broar över tid. Därav måstestålbroars tillförlitlighet, som kan påverkas allvarligt på grund av utmattning, bedömasoch förutsägas. Flera olika nivåer av osäkerheter är involverade i initieringoch propagering av utmattningssprickor, varför sannolikhetsbaserade metoder kange en bättre uppskattning av utmattningslivslängden än deterministiska metoder.När liknande detaljer återkommer i en konstruktion och med korrelation mellanvarandra kan dessa betraktas som ett system, för vilket tillförlitlighetsmetoder påsystemnivå kan utnyttjas. Det gör det möjligt för ingenjören att identifiera betydelsenav en individuell detalj eller interaktionen mellan detaljer med avseende påsystemets totala tillförlitlighet. Det huvudsakliga syftet med denna licentiatuppsats är att utvärdera sannolikhetsbaserademetoder för uppskattning av stålbroars tillförlitlighet, både med avseendepå enskilda detaljer och på systemnivå. För enskilda detaljer eftersträvas en tidseffektivsimuleringsteknik. Den allmänt tillämpade Monte Carlo-simuleringsmetodenger en robust uppskattning, men är mycket tidskrävande. Subset-simuleringsmetodenundersöks som ett alternativ och den visar stor potential när det gäller att hanteraen flerdimensionell gränsfunktion och en olinjär sprickpropageringsmodell. På systemnivåbeaktas den rumsliga korrelationen mellan detaljer. En modelleringsmetodbaserad på konstant korrelation mellan detaljer har föreslagits som komplement tillvanliga simuleringstekniker för att uppskatta tillförlitligheten analytiskt och avsevärtminska simuleringstiden. Genom att utnyttja korrelationen kan informationom en tillgänglig detalj användas för att förutsäga systemets status. Medan en tillförlitlighetsanalys bedöms mot en specifik säkerhetsnivå används riskanalysenför att hitta den mest optimala åtgärden. Genom att beakta konsekvenserhar ett riskbaserat verktyg för beslutsstöd föreslagits och presenterats i form av ettbeslutsträd. Resultaten visar att besluten baserade på tillförlitlighet kan skilja sigfrån de som baseras på en uppskattad risk, eftersom metoderna har olika målfunktioner. / <p>QC 20201007</p>

<div>The design of bridges prior to 1994 was carried out by either the Load Factor Design (LFD) or the Allowable Stress Design (ASD) methodologies. Load rating of these bridges was primarily conducted by Load Factor Rating (LFR). In 1994, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) developed and encouraged the use of a probabilistic-based method titled Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) for carrying out bridge design. A new methodology consistent with LRFD was also developed and adopted for conducting load rating. Thus, a new Load and Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) was adopted by AASHTO in 2001 for load rating. Today, the bridges that were designed by the old LFD methodology are rated by both LFR and LRFR. Continued development suggests that load rating in future will be based only on LRFR, therefore LRFR is the recommended method for carrying out load rating of bridges even if they were designed by LFD. </div><div><br></div><div>The Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT) came across some LFD designed bridges which were adequate by LFR methodology, i.e., produced a rating factor of more than 1.0, but inadequate for LRFR. The load ratings were carried out using AASHTOWare Bridge Rating (BrR) software. These bridges belonged to five different limit states: lateral torsional buckling, changes in cross-section along the member length, tight stringer spacings, girder end shear and moment over continuous piers. </div><div><br></div><div>This research study explores the inherent differences between LFR and LRFR to justify the inconsistencies in the rating values. To find an explanation for these discrepancies, load ratings of these bridges were carried out extensively on AASHTOWare BrR. To verify the results produced by BrR, a separate analysis was also conducted using Mathcad and structural analysis results from SAP2000 for comparison purposes. Finally, the study also recommends some modifications in the BrR software that can be adopted for each of the above-mentioned limit states to resolve inconsistencies found between LFR and LRFR rating values. </div><div><br></div>

This master thesis covers the dynamic soil structure interaction of soil-steel culverts applyinga methodology based on the frequency domain response. At the first stage of this masterthesis, field tests were performed on one bridge using controlled excitation. Then, themethodology followed uses previous research, the field tests, finite element models (FEM)and perfectly matched layer (PML) elements.Firstly, a 2D model of the analysed bridge, Hårestorp, was made to compare the frequencyresponse functions (FRF) with the ones obtained from the field tests. Simultaneously, a 3Dmodel of the bridge is created for the following purposes: compare it against the 2D modeland the field tests, and to implement a model updating procedure with the particle swarmalgorithm to calibrate the model parameters. Both models use PML elements, which areverified against previous solution from the literature. The verification concludes that thePML behave correctly except for extreme parameter values.In the course of this master thesis, relatively advanced computation techniques were requiredto ensure the computational feasibility of the problem with the resources available.To do that, a literature review of theoretical aspects of parallel computing was performed, aswell as the practical aspects in Comsol. Then, in collaboration with Comsol Support and thehelp given by PDC at KTH it was possible to reduce the computational time to a feasiblepoint of around two weeks for the model updating of the 3D model.The results are inconclusive, in terms of searching for a perfectly fitting model. Therefore,further research is required to adequately face the problem. Nevertheless, there are some accelerometerswhich show a considerable level of agreement. This thesis concludes to discardthe 2D models due to their incapability of facing the reality correctly, and establishes a modeloptimisation methodology using Comsol in connection with Matlab.

Railway noise is a very important and growing health hazard in today´s society.Railway systems pass through towns and cities and create noise. When trainsride through or over railway bridges, switches and crossings the noise increasessubstantially, causing great annoyance to the residents in the area.At the present time, acoustic regulations exist in most countries and are set to achievea good environmental quality in residential areas, schools, hospitals, offices andhotels.A few calculation models exist for railway traffic noise, such as The NPM 1996,NORD2000 and Cnossos-EU. The NPM 1996 is currently used in Sweden to calculatenoise propagation from railway traffic. To uphold the regulations set, it is importantthat the method used is as precise as possible. All of these calculation modelsare based on several correction factors. Today, the current corrections for trackconditions, that is railway bridges, switches and crossings, are not very accurate andneed to be reconsidered.The aim of this project was to investigate and quantify the error of the NPM correctionfactors and give some indication of how they should be adjusted. This is done to makethe noise prediction from railway traffic more accurate and thus protect the residentsfrom these health risks.The specific objective was to perform significant amount of field measurements ofnoise from trains on different steel bridges, switches and crossings, as well as on afew concrete bridge according to the measurement standard Nordtest NT 098. Thefield work was carried out over the period March to May, when weather conditionsmet the criteria for field measurements, in and around the Stockholm area.The results obtained revealed that the correction factors for steel bridges andcrossings are considerably lower in the NPM than measured in this project. However,the correction factors for switches and concrete bridges are similar to the ones inthe NPM. In this thesis, a part of the correction factors have only been invalidatedto a degree. It has been shown that each bridge is unique and perhaps there is apossibility of finding similarities between some type of bridges. However, much moreiv |measurements are needed to see any correlation between each bridge type. Thus,further and more comprehensive measurements have to be carried out in order toestablish new accurate correction factors for track conditions in the Nordic PredictionMethod.

Curved and skewed I-girder bridges exhibit torsional displacements of the individual girders and of the overall bridge cross-section under dead loads. As a result, the girder webs can be plumb in only one configuration. If the structure is built such that the webs are plumb in the ideal no-load position, they generally cannot be plumb under the action of the structure's steel or total dead load; hence, twisting of the girders is unavoidable under dead loads. The deflected geometry resulting from these torsional displacements can impact the fit-up of the members, the erection requirements (crane positions and capacities, the number of temporary supports, tie down requirements, etc.), the bearing cost and type, and the overall strength of the structure. Furthermore, significant layover may be visually objectionable, particularly at piers and abutments. If the torsional deflections are large enough, then the cross-frames are typically detailed to compensate for them, either partially or fully. As specified in Article C6.7.2 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, different types of cross-frame detailing methods are used to achieve theoretically plumb webs under the no-load, steel dead load, or total dead load conditions. Each of the cross-frame detailing methods has ramifications on the behavior and constructability of a bridge. Currently, there is much confusion and divergence of opinion in the bridge industry regarding the stage at which steel I girder webs should be ideally plumb and the consequences of out-of-plumbness at other stages. Furthermore, concerns are often raised about potential fit-up problems during steel erection as well as the control of the final deck geometry (e.g., cross-slopes and joint alignment). These influences and ramifications of cross-frame detailing need to be investigated and explained so that resulting field problems leading to needless construction delays and legal claims can be avoided. This dissertation addresses the influence of cross-frame detailing on curved and/or skewed steel I girder bridges during steel erection and concrete deck placement by conducting comprehensive analytical studies. Procedures to determine the lack-of-fit forces due to dead load fit (DLF) detailing are developed to assess the impact of different types of cross-frame detailing. The studies include benchmarking of refined analytical models against selected full scale experimental tests and field measurements. These analytical models are then utilized to study a variety of practical combinations and permutations of bridge parameters pertaining to horizontal curvature and skew effects. This research develops and clarifies procedures and provides new knowledge with respect to the impact of cross-frame detailing methods on: 1) constructed bridge geometries, 2) cross-frame forces, 3) girder stresses, 4) system strengths, 5) potential uplift at bearings, and 6) fit-up during erection. These developments provide the basis for the development of refined guidelines for: 1) practices to alleviate fit-up difficulties during erection, 2) selection of cross-frame detailing methods as a function of I-girder bridge geometry characteristics, and 3) procedures to calculate the locked-in forces due to DLF cross-frame detailing.

This thesis investigates the strength behavior of a representative highly skewed and horizontally curved bridge as well as analysis and design procedures for these types of structures. The bridge responses at and above a number of limits in the AASHTO (2007) Specifications are considered. The study includes the evaluation of various attributes of the elastic analysis of the subject bridge. These attributes include: (1) the accuracy of 3-D grid versus 3-D FEA models, (2) first-order versus second-order effects during the construction, (3) the ability to predict layover at bearing lines using simplified equations and (4) the benefit of combining the maximum and concurrent major-axis and flange lateral bending values due to live load compared to combining the maximums due to different live loads when checking the section resistances. The study also addresses the ability of different AASHTO 2007 resistance equations to capture the ultimate strength behavior. This is accomplished by comparing the results from full nonlinear 3-D FEA studies to the elastic design and analysis results. Specifically the use of the 2007 AASHTO moment based one-third rule equations is evaluated for composite sections in positive bending.

This study investigates the complex issues surrounding the preservation of historic, single-lane, metal truss bridges. Essentially functionally obsolete, these structures are targeted for replacement due to current government transportation policies, funding requirements, and safety concerns. After these issues are discussed, a series of case studies from Hunterdon County, New Jersey, will highlight multiple bridge rehabilitation projects in which designs and plans were modified to suit the unique situations and conditions of each of these structures, without compromising historic integrity and improving safety. These bridges have important cultural value, and although in some cases the original structure may be lost or wholly reconstructed, the historic character of the bridge and area is retained. This thesis illuminates the difficulties that need to be overcome in attempting to successfully preserve historic, single-lane bridges and their rural context (while maintaining transportation functionality), and illustrates the important role of community involvement in the preservation process. / Department of Architecture

<p>Civil engineering structures must provide an adequate and safe performance during their time of service, and the owners of these structures must have a reliable inspection strategy to ensure time-dependent damage does not become excessive. Visual inspection is the first step in every structural inspection; however, many elements in the majority of structures are difficult to access and require specialized personal and equipment. In an attempt to reduce the risk of the inspector and the cost of additional equipment, the use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) has been increasing in the last years. The absence of standards and regulations regarding the use of UAS in inspection of structures has allowed the market to widely advertise Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) without protocols or qualifications that prove their effectiveness, leaving the owners of the structures to solely rely on claims of the vendors before deciding which technology suits their particular inspection needs. Focusing primarily on bridge inspection, this research aimed to address the lack of performance-based evaluation and standards for UAS, developing a validation criterion to evaluate a given UAS based on a repeatable test that resembles typical conditions in a structure. </p><p><br></p><p>Current applications of UAS in inspection of structures along with its advantages and limitations were studied to determine the current status of UAS technologies. A maximum typical rotor-tip-to-rotor-tip distance of an UAV was determined based on typical UAVs used in bridge inspection, and two main parameters were found to be relevant when flying close to structures: proximity effects in the UAV and availability of visual line of sight. Distances where proximity effects are relevant were determined based on several field inspections and flights close to structures. In addition, the use of supplementary technologies such as Global Positioning System (GPS) and Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) was studied to understand their effect during inspection. </p><p><br></p><p>Following the analysis, the author introduces the idea of a series of obstacles and elements inside an enclosed space that resemble components of bridge structures to be inspected using UAVs, allowing repeatability of the test by controlling outside parameters such as lighting condition, wind, precipitation, temperature, and GPS signal. Using distances based on proximity effects, maximum typical rotor-tip-to-rotor-tip distance, and a gallery of bridges and situations when flying close to bridge structures, a final arrangement of elements is presented as the evaluation chamber. Components inside the evaluation chamber include both “real” steel and concrete specimens as well as those intended to simulate various geometric configurations on which other features are mounted. Pictures of damages of steel and concrete elements have been placed in the internal faces of the obstacles that can be assessed either in real-time flight or in post-processing work. A detailed comparison between the objectives of this research project and the results obtained by the evaluation chamber was performed using visual evaluation and resolution charts for the images obtained, the availability of visual line of sight during the test, and the absence of GPS signal.</p><p><br></p><p>From the comparison and analysis conducted and based on satisfactory flight results as images obtained during flights, the evaluation chamber is concluded to be a repeatable and reliable tool to apply to any UAS prior to inspect bridges and other structures, and the author recommends to refrain from conducting an inspection if the UAS does not comply with the minimum requirements presented in this research work. Additionally, this research provided a clearer understanding of the general phenomenon presented when UAVs approach structures and attempts to fill the gap of knowledge regarding minimum requirements and criterion for the use of UAS technologies in inspection of structures.</p>