O uso de aditivos alimentares promotores de crescimento em bovinos de corte tem aumentado, porém, existem relativamente poucos estudos sobre uso de aditivos para bovinos em pastagem. Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de flavomicina (FL) e uma mistura de ureia comum e ureia protegida no desempenho (GMD), produtividade (GA) e consumo de suplemento (CS) por novilhas em pastagem diferida de capim-marandu (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu), de julho a novembro de 2010. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos completos casualizados, com cinco tratamentos e três repetições, arranjados num fatorial 2x2, mais um tratamento controle (suplemento mineral). Os fatores foram a inclusão de FL e a fonte de nitrogênio não proteico (NNP), adicionados a um suplemento proteico. O fator FL foi avaliado nos níveis de inclusão 0 e 100 mg kg-1 de suplemento. Foram avaliadas duas fontes de NNP: ureia comum (U) e uma mistura (M) de ureia comum (2/3 do NNP) e ureia protegida (1/3 do NNP), ambas fornecendo 365 g kg-1 de equivalente proteico ao suplemento. Foram utilizadas 120 novilhas da raça Nelore, peso médio de 206 kg, distribuídas em 15 unidades experimentais. As variáveis resposta da forragem foram massa de forragem, oferta de forragem, composição morfológica e concentração de PB, FDN e FDA. Os animais foram manejados em lotação rotativa, com 7 dias de ocupação e 28 dias de descanso, usando taxa de lotação variável para se chegar a ofertas de forragem semelhante entre tratamentos. Os animais do tratamento controle tiveram o menor GMD (-0,054 kg de peso vivo animal-1 dia-1) e tiveram o menor GA (-29,1 kg de peso vivo ha-1), enquanto ocorreu interação entre FL e fonte de NNP para as mesmas variáveis. No desdobramento da interação, o uso de FL aumentou o GMD e GA apenas na presença de U (0,055 vs. 0,116 kg animal-1 dia-1 e 29,4 vs. 59,4 kg ha-1). O uso de M no suplemento não amento GMD e GA quando comparado com U. CS não foi afetado pelos tratamentos, com médias de 0,184, 0,289 e 0,104 kg animal-1 dia-1 para os ciclos de pastejo 1, 2 e 3, respectivamente, todas diferentes entre si. A forragem não apresentou variação entre tratamentos para a maioria das variáveis estudadas. A lotação não variou entre tratamentos nem entre ciclos de pastejo (media = 2.24 AU ha-1). A inclusão de FL tem o potencial de melhorar desempenho e produtividade de novilhas e a fonte de NNP e FL não afetam o CS. / The use of growth promoter feed additives in beef cattle has increased, however, there are relatively few studies about using additives in grazing cattle. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of flavomycin (FL) and a mix of common and coated urea on average daily gain (ADG), gain per area (GA) and supplement intake (SI) of heifers grazing stockpiled palisadegrass (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu), from July to November of 2010. The experimental design was randomized complete block, with five treatments and three replicates, arranged on a 2x2 factorial plus control (mineral supplement). The factors were the inclusion of FL and the source of non protein nitrogen (NPN), added to a protein supplement. The FL factor was assessed at the inclusion levels 0 and 100 mg kg-1 of supplement. Two sources of NPN were assessed: common urea (U) or a mix (M) of common urea (2/3 of NPN) and coated urea (1/3 of NPN), both providing 365 g kg-1 of protein equivalent to the supplement. A hundred and twenty Nellore heifers weighting 206 kg were distributed 15 experimental units. Forage response variables were herbage mass, herbage allowance, morphological composition and CP, NDF and ADF concentrations. The animals were managed in a rotational stocking, with 7 d grazing and 28 d resting period using a variable stocking rate to achieve similar herbage allowance among treatments. The animals receiving control treatment had the least ADG (-0,054 kg animal-1 day-1) and GA (-29.1 kg ha-1), while there was significant interaction between FL and source of NPN. In the interaction unfolding, the ADG and GA were greater in animals receiving FL in the presence of U (0.055 vs. 0.116 kg anim.-1 day-1 and 29.4 vs. 59.4 kg ha-1). The use of M in the supplement did not increase ADG and GA when compared to supplement with U. SI wasn\'t affected by treatments, with averages of 0,184, 0,289 and 0,104 kg animal-1 day-1 to grazing cycles 1, 2 and 3, respectively, all different among themselves. In general, the forage characteristics were similar among treatments. Stocking rate wasn\'t affected by both treatments and grazing cycles (mean = 2.24 AU ha-1). The inclusion of FL in the supplement has potential to improve performance and productivity of heifers and source of NPN and FL did not affect SI.

The aim of this thesis was to investigate contrasting pasture management strategies on the foraging behaviour, pasture production, carcass characteristics, herbage intake, faecal gas emissions and methane emission by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) pastures. The experiment was carried out in 2014 and 2015. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replicates and two grazing strategy treatments (traditional rotational stocking method – RT meaning pre- and post-grazing target heights of 25 and 5 cm, respectively and, “rotatinuous stocking” – RN with pre- and post-grazing target heights of 18 and 11 cm, respectively). The grazing management was based on a 1-day strip-grazing regime. Male castrated sheep were used. The actual average sward heights for the RN treatment were 17.9 and 11.1 cm (pre- and post-grazing, respectively) and 27.1 and 7.8 cm for the RT (pre- and post-grazing, respectively). The stocking period in 2014 was 146 and 140 days (RN and RT, respectively) and in 2015 it was 155 and 146 days (RN and RT, respectively). The diurnal animal activities (grazing, ruminating and resting time) did not differ between treatments, with average of 439.6, 166.9 and 85.0 minutes, respectively. The bite rate, feeding station per min and steps per min were greater at the RN than the RT treatment. Grazing time and bite rate were greater in the afternoon than morning in both treatments. Therefore, the daily herbage intake by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass was greater for the RN than the RT treatment (CHAPTER II). The herbage production in the RN was 28% higher than the RT treatment. Individual average daily gain and live weight gain per hectare were greater in the RN than the RT treatment (CHAPTER III). RN treatment presented greater final live weight, carcass and commercial cut weights from grazing sheep than RT treatment (CHAPTER IV). RN treatment had a faecal chemical quality greater than RT treatment, resulting in a greater daily nitrogen excretion per animal and greater faecal CH4 and N2O emissions (CHAPTER VI). The “rotatinuous stocking” (RN) was the better grazing management strategy for mitigation of CH4 emissions by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass, emitting 64% less CH4 per unit area and 170% less CH4 per unit of animal product than the traditional rotational stocking method (RT) (CHAPTER V).

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar as consequências bioeconômicas do aumento da taxa de lotação de vacas de cria em campo nativo com o uso de feno de palha de arroz. O experimento foi realizado em uma propriedade rural de Cachoeira do Sul 30º14’29” S 52º58’47” O, sul do Brasil, utilizando 110 vacas prenhas cruza Angus, com idade entre três e seis anos e alocadas nos tratamentos experimentais: SPF10 2.000 kg de peso vivo (PV/ha) e oferta de 10 kg feno/animal/dia; SPF5 1.000 kg PV/ha e oferta de 5 kg feno/animal/dia; SPF0 1.000 kg PV/ha sem oferta de feno. No início do experimento as vacas foram pesadas e avaliadas quanto ao escore de condição corporal (ECC) e distribuídas nos tratamentos: SPF10 (464 kg; 2,74); SPF5 (457 kg; 2,69); SPF0 (459 kg; 2,75) para PV e ECC, respectivamente. Todos os animais receberam um suplemento diário de 0,200kg/animal/dia de sal proteinado com 40% de PB. O período de suplementação com feno foi realizado no pré-parto das vacas, de 08 de maio a 01 de agosto. A partir do parto, os três grupos de vacas foram reunidos em um único lote e alocadas em pastagem anual de inverno (Lolium multiflorum e Avena strigosa). O acasalamento subsequente foi por meio de IATF e posterior repasse com touros na relação de 1:30 por um período de 60 dias. Foram avaliados o peso ao parto (PP; Kg), escore de condição corporal (ECC; 1-5), peso ao nascer (PN; kg), intervalo parto cio (IPC; dias), taxa de prenhez (TP; %) e produtividade (kg PV/ha) e resultado econômico (R$). Os sistemas não afetaram (P>0,05) o PP (492,0; 491,1; 479,7 kg), ECC (2,867; 2,692; 2,778) e PN (36,5; 35,9; 35,8 kg) para SPF10, SPF5 e SPF0, respectivamente. O IPC (52,2; 54,0; 56,1 dias) e a TP (65; 65; 72%) também não diferiram (P>0,05) entre os grupos experimentais. Contudo, no SPF10 a produtividade foi maior do que SPF5 E SPF0 (557,1 kg vs 288,9 e 320,0 kg) e o resultado econômico foi 181 e 190% superior aos sistemas SPF0 e SPF5, respectivamente. Esses resultados revelam o potencial nutricional do feno de palha de arroz como alternativa para viabilizar o aumento da taxa de lotação no pré-parto de vacas em sistemas de cria, mantidas em campo nativo, e assim produzir um maior número de bezerros por área associados ao benefício econômico. / The objective of this research was evaluate the effect of the baled rice straw in the beef cows pre-partum supplementation on the performance productive of the cow-calf systems. The 110 Angus cows between three and six years old allocated at experimental treatments on the farm at southern Brazil: SPF10 2.000 kg LW/ha and 10 kg of rice straw/cow/day; SPF5 1.000 kg LW/ha and 5 kg rice straw/animal/day; SPF0 1.000 kg LW/ha without rice straw offer. At the start of the experimental period the cows were weighed and evaluated in BCC. Thereby, the cows were allotted in the treatments according: SPF10 464 kg LW and 2,74 BCC; SPF5 457 kg LW and 2,69 BCC; SPF0 459 kg LW and 2,75 BCC. All the experimental groups received 0.200 kg/cow/day the protein salt with 40% CP. The supplementation period was the pre-partum phase, between May 8 and August 1 (85 days). The cows was kept in one lot in the start de parturition and transferred to a winter pasture (Lolium multiflorum e Avena strigosa). The breeding season period was by IATF and natural mount with bulls during 60 days. Was evaluated the cows weight at calving (PP;kg), body condition score (1-5), calf birth weight (BW: kg), resumption cyclicity postpartum interval (IPC;days), pregnant rate (PR;%) and productivity. The systems supplementation has no effect (P>0.05) on the cows PP (492.0; 491.1; 479.7kg), BCS (2.86; 2.69; 2.77) and calf BW (36.5; 35.9; 35.8 kg) to SPF10, SPF5 and SPF0, respectively. The IPC were 52.2; 54.0; 56.1 days and PR 65; 65; and 72%, to SPF10, SPF5 and SPF0, respectively (P>0.05). However, in SPF10 the productivity was higher (557.1 kg vs 288.9 e 320.0 kg) than SPF5 and SPF0, respectively, and your economics results evidenced the superiority of the 180% in ratio the other systems. Therefore, this results showed the potential of baled rice straw as an alternative to enable the increase of the stocking rate pre-partum cows, maintained in the natural pastures, and thus increase the productivity in cow-calf operations.

Atualmente, o termo sustentabilidade vem ganhando destaque dentro das atividades agrícolas e para a produção animal em pastagens não é diferente. As leguminosas forrageiras são conhecidas por algumas características peculiares como grande capacidade de fixação do nitrogênio atmosférico e elevado valor nutritivo, surgindo assim como uma alternativa viável nesse novo modelo de produção. Entretanto, muitas vezes práticas de manejo inadequadas acabam não permitindo a exploração do potencial dessas espécies, levando-as ao desuso. Dessa forma, conhecer a resposta de plantas (alterações em forma e função) a intensidades de pastejo é imprescindível para permitir a idealização de estratégias de manejo eficientes que possam contribuir para a otimização do processo produtivo em sistemas pastoris. Este trabalho fez parte de uma série de experimentos delineados com o propósito de avaliar aspectos gerais de crescimento e desenvolvimento do amendoim forrageiro sob pastejo e suas implicações sobre a produção de forragem e potencial de consumo pelos animais. Seu objetivo específico foi avaliar as características produtivas de Arachis pintoi cv. Belmonte submetido a intensidades de pastejo sob lotação contínua. O experimento foi conduzido na Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\", Piracicaba, SP, de janeiro a dezembro de 2013. Os tratamentos corresponderam a intensidades de pastejo determinadas por alturas de manejo do pasto (5, 10, 15 e 20 cm), e foram alocados às unidades experimentais (piquetes de aproximadamente 200 m²) segundo delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, com quatro repetições. Foram caracterizadas e determinadas as seguintes variáveis-resposta: índice de área foliar, ângulo da folhagem, interceptação luminosa do dossel, massa de forragem e sua composição botânica e morfológica, número e massa de nódulos radiculares, massa de raízes e acúmulo de forragem. As intensidades de pastejo promoveram alterações no crescimento e desenvolvimento do Arachis pintoi cv. Belmonte. Pastos manejados com intensidade de pastejo mais leniente (15 e 20 cm) apresentaram maior índice de área foliar, ângulo da folhagem, massa de forragem, porcentagem de plantas invasoras e taxa de acúmulo de forragem (exceto no inverno). Em contrapartida, pastejos severos (5 e 10 cm) proporcionaram maiores valores de porcentagem de folíolos e pecíolos, relação folíolo/estolão, número e massa de nódulos, massa de raízes e taxa de acúmulo de forragem durante o inverno. A intensidade de pastejo não afetou o peso médio dos nódulos, somente o seu número e massa total. Outros aspectos produtivos apresentaram efeitos isolados de época do ano como porcentagem de estolão e de material morto, com maiores valores registrados no verão e no inverno, respectivamente. Estolões assim como folhas (folíolos e pecíolos) corresponderam às principais estruturas na determinação do crescimento das plantas, tendo sido afetados de forma direta pela intensidade de pastejo e época do ano. A intensidade de pastejo interferiu com a relação parte aérea/raízes, de forma que maior massa de raízes e de nódulos foram registradas nos pastos manejados a 5 e 10 cm e o maior IAF, interceptação de luz e acúmulo de forragem foram registrados nos pastos manejados a 15 e 20 cm. O fato indica uma relação de compensação entre número e massa de nódulos/raízes e IAF controlando o acúmulo de forragem, revelando grande plasticidade fenotípica potencial dessa planta forrageira e potencial de uso em pastagens. / In recent years the term sustainability is becoming increasingly important in agriculture, including animal production from pastoral systems. Forage legumes are known for some particular characteristics like large capacity for capturing atmospheric nitrogen and high nutritive value of the produced herbage, and for that reason is being considered as a viable alternative in this new production model. However, inadequate management practices often result in no realisation and exploitation of their production potential, resulting in low use of these plant species. For that reason, understanding of plant responses (modifications in form and function) to intensities of grazing is essential for allowing planning of efficient management practices aiming at optimising productivity in pastoral systems of animal production. This study was part of a series of experiments conceived with the purpose of evaluating general aspects of growth and development of forage peanut under grazing and their implications to herbage production and potential of herbage intake by grazing animals. The specific objective was to evaluate the agronomic characteristics of Arachis pintoi cv. Belmonte subjected to intensities of grazing under continuous stocking. The experiment was carried out at Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\", Piracicaba, SP, from January to December 2013. Treatments corresponded to four intensities of grazing characterised by the sward management heights of 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm. These were allocated to the experimental units (200 m2 paddocks) according to a randomised complete block design, with four replications. The following response variables were evaluated: sward leaf area index (LAI), foliage angle, canopy light interception (LI), herbage mass and its morphological and botanical composition, number and mass of root nodules, root mass and herbage accumulation. The grazing intensities interfered with growth and development of Arachis pintoi cv. Belmonte. Swards managed at 15 and 20 cm showed higher LAI, foliage angle, herbage mass, percentage of weeds and herbage accumulation rates (except in winter) than those managed at 5 and 10 cm. On the other hand, swards managed at 5 and 10 cm showed higher percentage of leaf, leaf-to-stolon ratio, number and mass of root nodules, root mass and winter herbage accumulation rates. Grazing intensity did not affect average nodule weight, only nodule number and total mass. Other productive aspects revealed isolated effects of season of the year like percentages of stolon and dead material, with larger values recorded during summer and winter, respectively. Stolons as well as leaves corresponded to the main structures determining plant growth, and were directly affected by grazing intensity and season of the year. Grazing intensity interfered with the shoot-to-root ratio, with larger root and nodule mass being recorded on swards managed at 5 and 10 cm and larger LAI, LI and herbage accumulation recorded on swards managed at 15 and 20 cm. The fact indicates a compensating relationship between number and mass of nodules/roots and LAI controlling herbage accumulation, highlighting the large potential phonotypical plasticity of this forage plant and potential of use in pastures.

O experimento foi conduzido na Estação Experimental Agronômica da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul durante a estação de outonoinverno, com o objetivo de avaliar os parâmetros produtivos de uma pastagem natural fertilizada com diferentes níveis de N e submetida a diferimento e a sua influência sobre a produção animal. A fertilidade do solo foi corrigida 7 anos antes deste experimento (1996) com calcário e adubação de P e K. A área experimental foi roçada e diferida em 15/01/2003, quando foram aplicados os três níveis de nitrogênio (zero, 50 e 100 kg N/ha/ano). O período experimental ocorreu de 15 de abril (entrada dos animais) a 1º de setembro (final do inverno). Foram utilizados novilhos de sobre-ano (18 meses) em lotação contínua com carga variável de forma a manter uma oferta média de forragem de 10 kg de MS/100 kg PV/dia. O delineamento utilizado foi o de blocos completos casualizados com parcelas subdivididas no tempo sendo o tempo considerado na parcela principal e o N na subparcela. A pastagem nativa fertilizada quando diferida no verão por um período de 90 dias permite manter altas cargas animais durante o outono e inverno e em níveis crescentes conforme a adubação nitrogenada (958, 1072 e 1443 kg PV/ha, para zero, 50 e 100 kg N/ha respectivamente). Este efeito é devido fundamentalmente às taxas de crescimento observadas durante o período de diferimento. A performance animal somente é adequada durante o primeiro mês de utilização do pasto, ocorrendo perdas de peso a partir de meados de maio. Os níveis de nitrogênio utilizados não contribuem para atenuar estas perdas. Ainda assim é possível chegar ao final do inverno com o mesmo peso individual inicial dos animais. O diferimento de áreas de pastagem natural adubada revela-se uma estratégia interessante dentro de sistemas de produção animal a pasto, desde que integrado num planejamento forrageiro global da propriedade. / The experiment was conducted at the Agronomic Experimental Station of Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, at Eldorado do Sul district, during the autumn-winter seasons of 2003, aiming the evaluation of the parameters of natural pasture and animal production at different levels of nitrogen fertilization and submitted to deferment. Soil fertility was amended seven years before this trial (1996) with limestone and P and K fertilizers. Experimental area was mowed and deferred in 15/01/2003, when three levels of nitrogen fertilization (zero, 50, 100 kg N/ha) were applied. Evaluation period extended from April 15th (beginning of grazing period) to September 1st (final of winter), using eighteen months steers in continuous grazing an variable stocking in order to maintain average dry matter (DM) allowance of 10 kg DM/100 kg LW/day. A randomized complete block design with two replications was utilized, with time considered as main plot and N as sub-plot. Deferring fertilized native pasture at mid summer by 90 days make possible to maintain high stocking rates during the critical autumn-winter period dependent on nitrogen level (958, 1072 e 1443 kg LW/ha, for zero, 50 e 100 kg N/ha respectively). This differential effect is due to the forage growth rate verified during rest period. Animal performance was adequate only during the first month of pasture utilization and losses occur after mid may. The utilized N levels do not contribute to avoid these losses. Instead the observed weight losses, it is possible to keep the animals with the same initial weight of the beginning of autumn by the final of the winter. Deferring areas of natural pasture is a useful strategy inside animal production systems, if integrated on a global feed budget.

A utilização de plantas forrageiras em pastagens sem considerar os aspectos básicos relacionados com o crescimento e desenvolvimento das plantas leva ao desconhecimento de seus requerimentos em termos de ambiente e limites de resistência ao pastejo e, consequentemente, ao processo de degradação de grandes áreas de pastagens cultivadas. Dentro desse contexto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o padrão de crescimento de pastos de capim-mulato submetidos a estratégias de pastejo rotativo, buscando gerar interpretações fisiológicas importantes para o planejamento e idealização de práticas de manejo do pastejo. Os tratamentos corresponderam às combinações entre duas severidades (alturas pós-pastejo de 15 e 20 cm) e dois intervalos de pastejo (tempo necessário para o dossel atingir 95 e 100% de interceptação de luz durante a rebrotação IL) e foram alocados às unidades experimentais (piquetes de 1200 m2) segundo um delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, com quatro repetições. Foram avaliadas as seguintes variáveis-resposta de janeiro de 2008 a abril de 2009:índice de área foliar (IAF), taxa de crescimento da cultura (TCC), taxa assimilatória líquida (TAL), taxa de crescimento relativo (TCR), razão de área foliar (RAF), área foliar específica (AFE) e razão de peso foliar (RPF). No verão 1 o tratamento 100/20 foi o que proporcionou maior TCC relativamente aos demais tratamentos, resultado da combinação entre alto IAF residual da altura pós-pastejo de 20 cm e maior intervalo de pastejo correspondente à meta de 100% de IL. Foi registrada redução na TCC do outono/inverno/início de primavera ao final de primavera. Já no verão 2 o tratamento 95/15 apresentou maiores valores de TCC relativamente aos tratamentos 100/15 e 100/20, resultado da maior TCR e maior IAF residual dos pastos mantidos a 95% de IL. Para os componentes TAL e RPF foi observado apenas efeito de época do ano, imprimindo as variações sazonais no padrão de respostas das plantas ao longo do ano. Com exceção do verão 1, os pastos manejados a 95% apresentaram maior RAF que pastos manejados a 100% de IL, resultado de ajustes morfológicos determinados principalmente em AFE. De forma geral, o intervalo de pastejo foi mais efetivo que a severidade de pastejo na expressão das variáveis-resposta estudadas. Assim, a estratégia de manejo mais efetiva e eficiente para o pastejo rotativo do capim-mulato corresponde ao uso de período de descanso equivalente ao tempo necessário para que o dossel atinja 95% de IL durante a rebrotação, condição que corresponde a uma altura pré-pastejo de 30 cm, e altura pós-pastejo de 15 a 20 cm. / Use of forage grasses on pastures without taking into account basic information related to their pattern of growth and development results in lack of knowledge regarding their morphophysiological limits to grazing, which may result in degradation of large areas of cultivated grasslands. Against that background, the objective of this study was to evaluate the growth patterns of mulato grass subjected to strategies of rotational stocking management, aiming at providing important physiological interpretations for planning and structuring grazing management practices. Treatments corresponded to combinations between two grazing severities (post-grazing heights of 15 and 20 cm) and two grazing intervals (time necessary for swards to intercept 95 or 100% of the incident light during regrowth LI), and were allocated to experimental units (1200m2 paddocks) according to a 2x2 factorial arrangement and a randomised complete block design, with four replications, from January 2008 until April 2009. The following response variables were studied: sward leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR), net assimilatory rate (NAR), relative growth rate (RGR), leaf area ratio (LAR), specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf weight ratio (LWR). During summer 1, treatment 100/20 resulted in the largest value of CGR, consequence of large remaining LAI associated with the post-grazing height of 20 cm and of the long grazing interval associated with the pre-grazing target of 100% LI. CGR decreased throughout autumun/winter/early spring and late spring. During summer 2, treatment 95/15 showed larger values of CGR than treatments 100/15 and 100/20, consequence of larger values of RGR and residual LAI of swards managed at 95 relative to those managed at 100% LI. NAR and LWR varied only with season of the year. Except during summer 1, swards managed at 95% LI showed larger values of LAR than those managed at 100% LI, a result of morphological adjustments mainly characterised by variations in SLA. Overall, grazing interval was more effective than grazing severity in interfering with most of the response variables studied. Therefore, adequate management of mulato grass under rotational stocking conditions correspond to a pre-grazing height of 30 cm (equivalent to the pre-grazing target of 95% LI) and post-grazing height of 15 to 20 cm.

This study examined the feasibility of using Rasch true score preequating under violated model assumptions and nonequivalent populations. Dichotomous item responses were simulated using a compensatory two dimensional (2D) three parameter logistic (3PL) Item Response Theory (IRT) model. The Rasch model was used to calibrate difficulty parameters using two methods: Fixed Parameter Calibration (FPC) and separate calibration with the Stocking and Lord linking (SCSL) method. A criterion equating function was defined by equating true scores calculated with the generated 2D 3PL IRT item and ability parameters, using random groups equipercentile equating. True score preequating to FPC and SCSL calibrated item banks was compared to identity and Levine's linear true score equating, in terms of equating bias and bootstrap standard errors of equating (SEE) (Kolen & Brennan, 2004). Results showed preequating was robust to simulated 2D 3PL data and to nonequivalent item discriminations, however, true score equating was not robust to guessing and to the interaction of guessing and nonequivalent item discriminations. Equating bias due to guessing was most marked at the low end of the score scale. Equating an easier new form to a more difficult base form produced negative bias. Nonequivalent item discriminations interacted with guessing to magnify the bias and to extend the range of the bias toward the middle of the score distribution. Very easy forms relative to the ability of the examinees also produced substantial error at the low end of the score scale. Accumulating item parameter error in the item bank increased the SEE across five forms. Rasch true score preequating produced less equating error than Levine's true score linear equating in all simulated conditions. FPC with Bigsteps performed as well as separate calibration with the Stocking and Lord linking method. These results support earlier findings, suggesting that Rasch true score preequating can be used in the presence of guessing if accuracy is required near the mean of the score distribution, but not if accuracy is required with very low or high scores.

The main theme of this thesis is the interactions of animals with the environment and each other. The thesis was written within the framework of a biomanipulation project “Pikeperch in Himmerfjärden”. With the aim to investigate possible trophic pit-falls, give the manipulation the best possible start, and find ways to monitor the progression of the manipulation. In Paper I the diet of the invader cladoceran Cercopagis pengoi is analysed with stable isotopes; conducted prior to stocking. C.pengoi has a preference for large copepods, indicating possible competition with fish. Paper II investigates the behavioural differences between pikeperch fingerlings reared in different environments (pond vs. tank). Results suggest that fish reared in semi-natural ponds are more likely to survive directly after stocking. In Paper III and IV, the diel vertical migrations (DVM) of copepods are in focus. In Paper III the migrations of two copepod species: Acartia spp. and Eurytemora affinis are studied over season and life stage. The amplitude of migration was found to increase with ontogeny for both species, indicating evasion of visual predators. Paper IV examines the varying migratory patterns of adult female E. affinis finding that these animals migrate more actively when feeding conditions deteriorate and growth decreases. The overall conclusions of the thesis are that behavioural, not only direct trophic interactions are key when studying ecosystems. / <p>At the time of the doctoraldefense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status asfollows: Paper2: In press. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Data collected between 1992/93 and 1996/97 from two long-term grazing trials were used to investigate the interaction between grazing animals and veld grass. In the first trial, the impacts of stocking rate and time of stocking in spring on both livestock performance and veld vigour (defined as the ability of a grass plant to regrow after defoliation) and condition were investigated. In the second trial comparisons were made, firstly between the impacts of sheep and cattle grazing, and secondly between various types and frequencies of rest, on veld vigour and condition. Treatments applied in the first trial comprised four stocking rates, namely 7, 10, 13 and 16 sheep ha¯¹ for the duration of the grazing season, and two times of stocking, namely as early as possible after spring burning and three weeks later. Sheep grazed each treatment continuously throughout the growing season. Treatments were applied to alternate blocks in a two-year cycle with each block resting for a year within a grazing cycle. Animal performance (mass gains over the season) was measured to quantify livestock performance. Herbage availability was measured on a species basis at intervals throughout each season using a dry-weight-rank procedure to determine grazing patterns. Residual effects of the grazing treatments on vigour were determined by measuring herbage regrowth on a species basis during the rest season which followed a season of grazing and comparing these measures to a previously ungrazed control treatment. Effects of the grazing treatment on proportional species composition were determined using a nearest plant point technique. Stocking rate had a non-linear effect on livestock performance, with livestock performance on the lightest stocking rate being less than on the two intermediate stocking rates. The mass gains on the heaviest stocking rate were generally the smallest. Delaying the time of stocking in spring resulted in smaller mass gains during the resultant shorter season. The sheep from both the early and late time of stocking groups had similar mean masses at the end of the season. The advantage of stocking early can thus be attributed more to saving the cost of alternative feed for the interim period than to additional mass gains due to stocking early. Quantification of livestock performance in terms of selected and available feed quality, quantity and species availability throughout each season was extremely complex due to multiple thresholds in the measured variables and no simple cause and effect relations could be established that would hold for spatial or temporal extrapolation. The negative impact of grazing on veld vigour was severe. Stocking rate and time of stocking had a secondary impact with the vigour loss positively related to increasing grazing pressure. The main factor influencing vigour loss was grazing, irrespective of time of stocking or stocking rate, as opposed to no grazing. The impact of grazing on vigour was severely negative in the palatable species, variable in the species of intermediate palatability and positive in the unpalatable species that were rarely, if ever, grazed. The stocking rate and time of stocking rate had an impact on the proportional species composition, with the more palatable species declining in proportion. There was an observable relation between impact of grazing on vigour and on species composition. Treatments applied in the second trial involved applying a full growing season rest in alternate years, half a growing season rest (late season) in alternate years and no rest to veld grazed by sheep or cattle at similar stocking rates. Residual effects of the treatments on veld vigour were determined by measuring species regrowth using a dry-weight-rank technique during the season following treatment application, and comparing it to controls ungrazed for one and two seasons respectively. Changes in proportional species composition were determined using a nearest plant point technique. The vigour of veld grazed by sheep declined rapidly relative to veld grazed by cattle. The vigour of palatable species was severely impacted, vigour of intermediate species was variably impacted and vigour of unpalatable species increased dramatically on veld grazed by sheep compared to the control treatments. Similar trends occurred in veld grazed by cattle, but to a lesser degree. Resting was beneficial for vigour recovery in both sheep and cattle treatments but it seems that the grazing treatment between rests has a greater influence on the veld vigour and condition than the rest itself. The veld grazed by sheep remained at a substantially lower productivity level than veld grazed by cattle. This was particularly evident in the change in productivity balance between palatable and unpalatable species in the sheep treatments, where palatable species vigour declined and unpalatable species vigour increased relative to veld grazing by cattle. Species composition of veld grazed by sheep deteriorated over the trial period in contrast to the veld grazed by cattle, which improved in species composition. Grazing management recommendations for sourveld should include a bias towards cattle, optimising stocking rate for improved performance and resting for enhancing vigour of the palatable grasses. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

Considerable understanding of the functioning of semi-arid systems is still needed to enable range managers to formulate management policies, with a degree of confidence. Long term data sets that encompass a wide range of interactions between the various major components of a semi-arid system (vegetation, herbivory, animal performance, landscape and rainfall), are unfortunately rare but essential to provide sufficient depth of data to adequately test various hypotheses about rangeland dynamics. This study comprises an analysis of a ten year data set derived from two cattle stocking rate trials in the semi-arid savanna of KwaZulu/Natal. Statistical analysis revealed that the most pronounced and rapid compositional change was due to rainfall, but that stocking rates between 0.156 and 0.313 AU ha ¯¹ had an important effect as well. Sites on steeper slopes with heavy stocking rates, exhibited the greatest amount of compositional change between 1986 and 1996 (40 Euclidean points in heavy stocking rate treatments on slopes vs 21-24 Euclidean points in heavy stocking rate treatments on flatter land, or 11-24 Euclidean points in low stocking rate treatments). Heavy stocking rates in conjunction with low rainfall tended to cause decreases in densely tufted perennial grasses and increases in annuals and weakly tufted perennials. Multiple regression analysis revealed that seasonal peak grass production (measured as disc height) declined between 1986 and 1996 only at those sites on steeper slopes with heavy stocking rates. The camps that declined in productivity also underwent the greatest degree of compositional change. The decline in grass productivity in certain high stocking rate camps did not translate into a decline in cattle performance. Depending on rainfall, cattle gained on a seasonal basis between 112 and 241 kg at low stocking rates, 82 and 225 kg at medium stocking rates and 84 and 217 kg at high stocking rates Rainfall, compared with stocking rate, accounted for the greatest amount of variance in seasonal peak grass production and cattle performance. Cattle performance had a strong curvilinear response to rainfall, which also proved to be a better predictor of cattle performance than grass biomass. There were no clear trends in soil physical and chemical characteristics between low and high stocking rates that could provide convincing evidence that loss of soil nutrients was an important mechanism of range degradation. The total standing crop of plant nitrogen but not of phosphorus tended to decline at high stocking rates. Plant nutrient and van Soest analyses suggested that forage quality was higher at heavy stocking rates. The results of this study generally supported traditional concepts of rangeland dynamics with regard to rainfall and grazing effects on compositional change and seasonal grass production. The results were important in being able to show quantitatively that heavy stocking rates result in a decline in grass production and that this effect is dependent on an interaction between stocking rate and landscape position or slope, and that there is a link between a decline in seasonal grass production and compositional change. The results also highlighted areas for future research that would be useful for furthering our understanding of various aspects of rangeland dynamics and mechanisms of degradation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.