<p>Hösten 2008 uppstod en stor oro på den amerikanska fastighatsmarknaden, det som en följd av kraftigt sjunkande fastighetspriser tillsammans med dålig säkerhetshantering. Då banker har ett nära samarbete med varandra, såväl nationellt som internationellt bidrog det till att finanskrisen blev ett globalt problem på den finansiella marknaden. Den finansiella krisen spred sig mellan världens länder och nådde Sverige senare under hösten 2008. I Sverige har den kommersiella fastighetsmarknaden främst påverkats i form av färre transaktioner, det på grund av den då rådande likviditetsbristen.</p><p>Vi har i vår uppsats undersökt hur finanskrisen hittills har påverkat svenska långivare att finansiera lån till kommersiella fastighetsaffärer, vi har även undersökt eventuella förändringar gällande refinansiering av befintliga krediter inom fastighetsbolag. Då Sverige drabbades av en stor fastighetskris i början av 1990-talet ska vi även undersöka vad de svenska låneinstituten har gjort för att inte hamna i samma situation igen. För att svara an till vårt syfte har vi använt oss av en kvalitativ metod där vi har valt att intervjua personer som är väl insatta i frågor gällande kreditgivning till kommersiella fastigheter i Sverige.</p><p>Från det empiriska resultatet och den teori som finns inom ämnet har vi kunnat urskilja att en viss förändring har skett på den svenska finansmarknaden. Förändringen har sin grund i att det blev dyrare för låneinstituten att få tag på pengar, vilket i sin tur ledde till att de var tvungna att ta ut den kostnaden på kunden främst i form av högre marginaler. Då det blev dyrare att få tag på pengar bidrog det till att det i vissa avseenden blev svårare att få lån beviljade, främst i form av lägre belåningsgrader samt högre krav på låntagaren. Då en låntagare vill få en kredit beviljad bör långivaren även ta hänsyn till fler aspekter än det bedömda marknadsvärdet för att bedöma kreditens storlek. En aspekt som våra respondenter anser har stor betydelse för kreditens beviljande är att kunden kan visa upp ett bra kassaflöde.</p> / <p>In the autumn of 2008 drastic sinking real estate prices together with bad securitydealing brought a disturbance on the American real estate market. Since banks are working together, both national and international, this also led to a significant worrying at the global market. Because the crises wander from land to land, it also influenced Sweden and the Swedish real estate market. The commercial real estate market in Sweden was foremost influenced with a shortage of liquidity, which led to fewer transactions on the market.</p><p>With this essay we want to investigate how the global finance crises influenced the Swedish creditors when it comes to financing for commercial real estates. We also want to investigate if the qualifications have changed when it comes to refinance existing credits in real estate companies. Since the Swedish market already have had a large crises in the early 90s we also want to investigate what Swedish creditors made to not get in the same situation again. To answer our vision with the essay, we have used a qualitative method where we interviewed persons who all are highly informed in credit grand to commercial real estates in Sweden.</p><p>When we analyzed our research and the theory in the subject we have seen a change at the Swedish finance market. Since the credit become more expensive for the creditors, they needed to bring this cost at the costumers foremost as higher margin. When it became more expensive to get hold of credits, this also in some cases led to a difficulty to borrow money from the creditors. Creditors now claim more from there costumers, mostly as smaller advance rations and higher qualifications. When a borrower wants to get a credit granted, creditors also need to make allowances at more aspects then just the market-value when they decide the credits size. One of the most important aspects according to our respondents is to look at the borrowers’ cash flow.</p>

Hösten 2008 uppstod en stor oro på den amerikanska fastighatsmarknaden, det som en följd av kraftigt sjunkande fastighetspriser tillsammans med dålig säkerhetshantering. Då banker har ett nära samarbete med varandra, såväl nationellt som internationellt bidrog det till att finanskrisen blev ett globalt problem på den finansiella marknaden. Den finansiella krisen spred sig mellan världens länder och nådde Sverige senare under hösten 2008. I Sverige har den kommersiella fastighetsmarknaden främst påverkats i form av färre transaktioner, det på grund av den då rådande likviditetsbristen. Vi har i vår uppsats undersökt hur finanskrisen hittills har påverkat svenska långivare att finansiera lån till kommersiella fastighetsaffärer, vi har även undersökt eventuella förändringar gällande refinansiering av befintliga krediter inom fastighetsbolag. Då Sverige drabbades av en stor fastighetskris i början av 1990-talet ska vi även undersöka vad de svenska låneinstituten har gjort för att inte hamna i samma situation igen. För att svara an till vårt syfte har vi använt oss av en kvalitativ metod där vi har valt att intervjua personer som är väl insatta i frågor gällande kreditgivning till kommersiella fastigheter i Sverige. Från det empiriska resultatet och den teori som finns inom ämnet har vi kunnat urskilja att en viss förändring har skett på den svenska finansmarknaden. Förändringen har sin grund i att det blev dyrare för låneinstituten att få tag på pengar, vilket i sin tur ledde till att de var tvungna att ta ut den kostnaden på kunden främst i form av högre marginaler. Då det blev dyrare att få tag på pengar bidrog det till att det i vissa avseenden blev svårare att få lån beviljade, främst i form av lägre belåningsgrader samt högre krav på låntagaren. Då en låntagare vill få en kredit beviljad bör långivaren även ta hänsyn till fler aspekter än det bedömda marknadsvärdet för att bedöma kreditens storlek. En aspekt som våra respondenter anser har stor betydelse för kreditens beviljande är att kunden kan visa upp ett bra kassaflöde. / In the autumn of 2008 drastic sinking real estate prices together with bad securitydealing brought a disturbance on the American real estate market. Since banks are working together, both national and international, this also led to a significant worrying at the global market. Because the crises wander from land to land, it also influenced Sweden and the Swedish real estate market. The commercial real estate market in Sweden was foremost influenced with a shortage of liquidity, which led to fewer transactions on the market. With this essay we want to investigate how the global finance crises influenced the Swedish creditors when it comes to financing for commercial real estates. We also want to investigate if the qualifications have changed when it comes to refinance existing credits in real estate companies. Since the Swedish market already have had a large crises in the early 90s we also want to investigate what Swedish creditors made to not get in the same situation again. To answer our vision with the essay, we have used a qualitative method where we interviewed persons who all are highly informed in credit grand to commercial real estates in Sweden. When we analyzed our research and the theory in the subject we have seen a change at the Swedish finance market. Since the credit become more expensive for the creditors, they needed to bring this cost at the costumers foremost as higher margin. When it became more expensive to get hold of credits, this also in some cases led to a difficulty to borrow money from the creditors. Creditors now claim more from there costumers, mostly as smaller advance rations and higher qualifications. When a borrower wants to get a credit granted, creditors also need to make allowances at more aspects then just the market-value when they decide the credits size. One of the most important aspects according to our respondents is to look at the borrowers’ cash flow.

Univ., Diplomarbeit--Duisburg, 2008.

A topical issue in financial economics is the development of appropriate stochastic dynamic models for banking items and behavior. The issue here is to fulfil the need to generalize the more traditional discrete-time models of banking activity to a Levy process setting. In this thesis, under the assumption that the loan market is imperfectly competitive, we investigate the evolution of banking items such as bank assets (cash, bonds, shares, Treasuries, reserves, loans and intangible assets), liabilities (demand deposits) and bank capital (bank equity, subordinate debt and loan loss reserves). Here we consider the influence of macroeconomic factors and profitability as well as its indicators return on assets (ROA) and return on equity (ROE). As far as bank assets are concerned, we note that loan pricing models usually reflect the financial funding cost, risk premium to compensate for the risk of default by the borrower, a premium reflecting market power exercised by the bank and the sensitivity of the cost of capital raised to changes in loans extended. On the other hand, loan losses can be associated with an offsetting expense called the loan loss provision (LLP), which is charged against Nett profit. This offset will reduce reported income but has no impact on taxes, although when the assets are finally written off, a tax-deductible expense is created. An important factor influencing loan loss provisioning is regulation and supervision. Measures of capital adequacy are generally calculated using the book values of assets and equity. The provisioning of loans and their associated write-offs will cause a decline in these capital adequacy measures, and may precipitate increased regulation by bank authorities. Greater level of regulation generally entail additional costs for the bank. Currently, this regulation mainly takes the form of the Basel II Capital Accord that has been implemented on the worldwide basis since 2008. It is clear that bank profitability is a major indicator of financial crises for households, companies and financial institutions. An example of this from the 2007-2008 subprime mortgage crisis (SMC) is the U.S. bank, Wachovia Corp., who reported a big loss as from the first quarter of 2007 and eventually was bought by the world's largest bank, Citigroup, on 29 September 2008. A further example from the SMC is that both the failure of the Lehman Brothers investment bank and the acquisition in September 2008 of Merrill Lynch and Bear Stearns by Bank of America and JP Morgan Chase, respectively, were preceded by a decrease in profitability and an increase in the price of loans and loan losses. The subprime mortgage crisis is characterized by contracted liquidity in the global credit markets and banking system. The level of liquidity in the banking sector affects the ability of banks to meet commitments as they become due without incurring substantial losses from liquidating less liquid assets. Liquidity, therefore, provides the defensive cash or near-cash resources to cover banks' liability. An undervaluation of real risk in the subprime market is cascading, rippling and ultimately severely adversely affecting the world economy. The downturn in the U.S. housing market, risky lending and borrowing practices, and excessive individual and corporate debt levels have caused multiple adverse effects tumbled as the US housing market slumped. Banks worldwide are hoarding cash and showing a growing reluctance to lend, driving rates that institutions charge to each other on loans to record highs. Also, global money markets are inoperative, forcing increased injections of cash from central banks. The crisis has passed through various stages, exposing pervasive weaknesses in the global financial system and regulatory framework. The stochastic dynamics of the aforementioned banking items assist in formulating a maximization problem that involves endogenous variables such as profit consumption, the value of the bank's investment in loans and provisions for loan losses as control variants. In particular, we demonstrate that the bank is able to maximize its expected utility of discounted profit consumption over a random time interval, [t,r], and terminal profit at time r. Here the term profit consumption refers to the consumption of the bank's profits by dividend payments on equity and interest and principal payments on subordinate debt. The associated Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equation has a smooth solution when the optimal controls are computed by means of power, logarithmic and exponential utility functions. This enables us to make a direct comparison between the economic properties of the solutions for different choices of the utility function. In keeping with the main theme of this thesis, we simulate the financial indices ROE and ROA that are two measures of bank profitability. We further discuss optimization with power utility where we show the convergence of the Markov Chain Approximation Method (MCAM) and the impact of varying the model parameters in the form of loan loss severity, P, and loan loss frequency, <f>. We investigate the connections between the banking models and Basel II capital accord as well as the current subprime mortgage crises. As a way of conclusion, we provide remarks about the main issues discussed in the thesis and speculate about future research directions. The contents of this thesis is based on 3 peer-reviewed journal articles (see [105], [106] and [107]) and 1 peer-reviewed conference proceedings paper (see [104]). In addition, the paper [108] is currently being prepared for submission to an accredited journal. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Applied Mathematics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

A topical issue in financial economics is the development of appropriate stochastic dynamic models for banking items and behavior. The issue here is to fulfil the need to generalize the more traditional discrete-time models of banking activity to a Levy process setting. In this thesis, under the assumption that the loan market is imperfectly competitive, we investigate the evolution of banking items such as bank assets (cash, bonds, shares, Treasuries, reserves, loans and intangible assets), liabilities (demand deposits) and bank capital (bank equity, subordinate debt and loan loss reserves). Here we consider the influence of macroeconomic factors and profitability as well as its indicators return on assets (ROA) and return on equity (ROE). As far as bank assets are concerned, we note that loan pricing models usually reflect the financial funding cost, risk premium to compensate for the risk of default by the borrower, a premium reflecting market power exercised by the bank and the sensitivity of the cost of capital raised to changes in loans extended. On the other hand, loan losses can be associated with an offsetting expense called the loan loss provision (LLP), which is charged against Nett profit. This offset will reduce reported income but has no impact on taxes, although when the assets are finally written off, a tax-deductible expense is created. An important factor influencing loan loss provisioning is regulation and supervision. Measures of capital adequacy are generally calculated using the book values of assets and equity. The provisioning of loans and their associated write-offs will cause a decline in these capital adequacy measures, and may precipitate increased regulation by bank authorities. Greater level of regulation generally entail additional costs for the bank. Currently, this regulation mainly takes the form of the Basel II Capital Accord that has been implemented on the worldwide basis since 2008. It is clear that bank profitability is a major indicator of financial crises for households, companies and financial institutions. An example of this from the 2007-2008 subprime mortgage crisis (SMC) is the U.S. bank, Wachovia Corp., who reported a big loss as from the first quarter of 2007 and eventually was bought by the world's largest bank, Citigroup, on 29 September 2008. A further example from the SMC is that both the failure of the Lehman Brothers investment bank and the acquisition in September 2008 of Merrill Lynch and Bear Stearns by Bank of America and JP Morgan Chase, respectively, were preceded by a decrease in profitability and an increase in the price of loans and loan losses. The subprime mortgage crisis is characterized by contracted liquidity in the global credit markets and banking system. The level of liquidity in the banking sector affects the ability of banks to meet commitments as they become due without incurring substantial losses from liquidating less liquid assets. Liquidity, therefore, provides the defensive cash or near-cash resources to cover banks' liability. An undervaluation of real risk in the subprime market is cascading, rippling and ultimately severely adversely affecting the world economy. The downturn in the U.S. housing market, risky lending and borrowing practices, and excessive individual and corporate debt levels have caused multiple adverse effects tumbled as the US housing market slumped. Banks worldwide are hoarding cash and showing a growing reluctance to lend, driving rates that institutions charge to each other on loans to record highs. Also, global money markets are inoperative, forcing increased injections of cash from central banks. The crisis has passed through various stages, exposing pervasive weaknesses in the global financial system and regulatory framework. The stochastic dynamics of the aforementioned banking items assist in formulating a maximization problem that involves endogenous variables such as profit consumption, the value of the bank's investment in loans and provisions for loan losses as control variants. In particular, we demonstrate that the bank is able to maximize its expected utility of discounted profit consumption over a random time interval, [t,r], and terminal profit at time r. Here the term profit consumption refers to the consumption of the bank's profits by dividend payments on equity and interest and principal payments on subordinate debt. The associated Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equation has a smooth solution when the optimal controls are computed by means of power, logarithmic and exponential utility functions. This enables us to make a direct comparison between the economic properties of the solutions for different choices of the utility function. In keeping with the main theme of this thesis, we simulate the financial indices ROE and ROA that are two measures of bank profitability. We further discuss optimization with power utility where we show the convergence of the Markov Chain Approximation Method (MCAM) and the impact of varying the model parameters in the form of loan loss severity, P, and loan loss frequency, <f>. We investigate the connections between the banking models and Basel II capital accord as well as the current subprime mortgage crises. As a way of conclusion, we provide remarks about the main issues discussed in the thesis and speculate about future research directions. The contents of this thesis is based on 3 peer-reviewed journal articles (see [105], [106] and [107]) and 1 peer-reviewed conference proceedings paper (see [104]). In addition, the paper [108] is currently being prepared for submission to an accredited journal. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Applied Mathematics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (B.A.)--Haverford College, Dept. of Economics, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references.

Este trabalho compara os impactos da crise da dívida na América Latina (AL) nos anos 1980 e da crise do subprime de 2007 na região. Historicamente, verifica-se que crises financeiras gestadas no centro do sistema capitalista são capazes de causar efeitos negativos nas economias latino-americanas. Os impactos na economia vão do lado financeiro, incluindo câmbio e fluxos de capitais, ao real, afetando produção, emprego, investimentos e indicadores sociais. Sua magnitude, porém, depende tanto da forma como a crise é gerada e transmitida internacionalmente, como da estrutura das economias periféricas em questão e de seu posicionamento estratégico internacional. Com relação à primeira, enfatiza-se a diversificação produtiva e exportadora e a incorporação de tecnologia e inovação em sua estrutura produtiva. A segunda também se mostrou uma maneira eficiente de aplacar os efeitos da crise, ao ampliar a integração regional dentro da própria AL e com outros blocos e países emergentes, notadamente a cooperação multilateral. O trabalho assume que as mudanças estruturais experimentadas pelas economias latino-americanas, bem como a cooperação multilateral e a maior integração regional permitiram a estas nações minimizar os efeitos da crise do subprime, ao contrário da crise da dívida nos 1980, que promoveu profundos desarranjos e distúrbios econômicos na região. / This paper compares the impact of the debt crisis in Latin America (LA) in the 1980s and the 2007 subprime crisis’ in the region. Historically, it appears that financial crises gestated in the center of the capitalist system are capable of causing negative effects on Latin American economies. The impact on the economy occurs on the financial side, including exchange rates and capital flows, and in the real side, affecting production, employment, investment and social indicators. Its magnitude, however, depends as much on how the crisis is generated and transmitted internationally, as the structure of the peripheral economies in question and its international strategic positioning. Regarding the first, it emphasizes the productive and export diversification and the incorporation of technology and innovation in its production structure. The second was also an efficient way to assuage the effects of the crisis, to expand regional integration within the LA and with other blocs and emerging countries, notably multilateral cooperation. The work assumes that the structural changes experienced by Latin American economies multilateral cooperation and greater regional integration enabled these nations to minimize the effects of the subprime crisis, unlike the debt crisis in 1980, which promoted deep disorders and economic turmoil in the region.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to show how the small banks financial stability was affected by the financial crisis 2008. Method: The study is based on a quantitative methodology where the banks financial reports have been collected for the years 2004-2014. The selection in the study includes 7 banks. Results: The study’s result shows that the financial crisis had a small impact on the banks financial stability. The result also shows that the banks credit loss ratio was slightly affected. Conclusion: In conclusion, it can be noted that the financial crisis has a minimal impact on the niche banks financial stability and credit losses. / Syfte: Syftet med studien är att studera på vilket sätt svenska nischbankernas finansiella stabilitet har påverkats av finanskrisen 2008. Metod: Studien baseras på en kvantitativ metod där sekundärdata har samlats in från utvalda nischbankers årsredovisningar för år 2004-2014. Urvalet i studien granskar 7 nischbanker. Resultat: Studiens resultat tyder på att nischbankernas finansiella stabilitet påverkades i liten grad av finanskrisen 2008. Resultatet visar även att bankernas kreditförlustnivå påverkades i liten utsträckning. Slutsats: Sammanfattningsvis kan det konstateras att nischbankernas finansiella stabilitet samt kreditförluster hade en minimal påverkan av finanskrisen.

Este trabalho compara os impactos da crise da dívida na América Latina (AL) nos anos 1980 e da crise do subprime de 2007 na região. Historicamente, verifica-se que crises financeiras gestadas no centro do sistema capitalista são capazes de causar efeitos negativos nas economias latino-americanas. Os impactos na economia vão do lado financeiro, incluindo câmbio e fluxos de capitais, ao real, afetando produção, emprego, investimentos e indicadores sociais. Sua magnitude, porém, depende tanto da forma como a crise é gerada e transmitida internacionalmente, como da estrutura das economias periféricas em questão e de seu posicionamento estratégico internacional. Com relação à primeira, enfatiza-se a diversificação produtiva e exportadora e a incorporação de tecnologia e inovação em sua estrutura produtiva. A segunda também se mostrou uma maneira eficiente de aplacar os efeitos da crise, ao ampliar a integração regional dentro da própria AL e com outros blocos e países emergentes, notadamente a cooperação multilateral. O trabalho assume que as mudanças estruturais experimentadas pelas economias latino-americanas, bem como a cooperação multilateral e a maior integração regional permitiram a estas nações minimizar os efeitos da crise do subprime, ao contrário da crise da dívida nos 1980, que promoveu profundos desarranjos e distúrbios econômicos na região. / This paper compares the impact of the debt crisis in Latin America (LA) in the 1980s and the 2007 subprime crisis’ in the region. Historically, it appears that financial crises gestated in the center of the capitalist system are capable of causing negative effects on Latin American economies. The impact on the economy occurs on the financial side, including exchange rates and capital flows, and in the real side, affecting production, employment, investment and social indicators. Its magnitude, however, depends as much on how the crisis is generated and transmitted internationally, as the structure of the peripheral economies in question and its international strategic positioning. Regarding the first, it emphasizes the productive and export diversification and the incorporation of technology and innovation in its production structure. The second was also an efficient way to assuage the effects of the crisis, to expand regional integration within the LA and with other blocs and emerging countries, notably multilateral cooperation. The work assumes that the structural changes experienced by Latin American economies multilateral cooperation and greater regional integration enabled these nations to minimize the effects of the subprime crisis, unlike the debt crisis in 1980, which promoted deep disorders and economic turmoil in the region.

The goal of my thesis is to analyze anti-crisis measures of the hotel Westside located in the United States of America. The first chapter explains theoretical approaches to crisis and its impacts. It depicts crisis management approaches to successful crisis managing. In the next part of my thesis I look closer at the U.S. subprime mortgage crisis. I tried to show details of subprime mortgage crisis spreading into the financial sector and also its impacts on tourism industry. The last chapter of my thesis compares theoretical approaches with the real steps in the crisis. After analyzing the real hotel behavior, I can conclude the hotel managed the crisis successfully. Right identification of the crisis, choosing effective price strategy and additional financial resource utilization contributed to smooth managing of the crisis. There were mistakes made by human resources department. They made the impact of the crisis on the hotel bigger but their realizing taught the management of the hotel how to behave in the future.