The use of hydroxyl radical based reaction (Fenton reaction) for the destruction of organic pollutants has been widely reported in the literature. However, the low pH requirement and rapid hydrogen peroxide consumption rate make the application of conventional Fenton reaction difficult for in-situ treatment. In this study, we conducted a modified Fenton reaction by introducing a chelating agent into the reaction system that could prevent Fe(OH)3 (s) precipitation even at a neutral pH condition and reduce the H2O2 consumption rate by controlling the Fe2+ concentration. A chelating agent (mono-chelate or poly-chelate) combines with Fe2+ or Fe3+ to form stable metal-chelate complexes in solution. This decreases the concentration of Fe2+ in the solution so that reactions can be carried for longer contact times. Experimental results (citrate was the chelating agent) for 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) showed that TCP degradations were greater than 95% after 2.5 h and 24 h reaction times at fixed pH 5 and 6, respectively. For the same reaction time, the normalized chloride formations were 85% at pH 5 and 88% at pH 6. Several other chlorinated organic compounds were also chosen as the model compounds for detoxification studies because of their chemical structures: trichloroethylene (unsaturated hydrocarbon), carbon tetrachloride (highly oxidized compound), 2,2-dichlorobiphenyl, and biphenyl (a dual-aromatic ring structure). Poly-chelating agents (such as polyacrylic acid-PAA) provide multiple Fe2+/Fe3+ binding sites in the modified Fenton reaction for the oxidation of contaminants (2,2-dichlorobiphenyl, and biphenyl) at a neutral pH environment. Numerical simulation based on the kinetic model developed from the well known Fenton reaction and iron-chelate chemistry fits experiment data well for both standard and chelate modified Fenton reactions. In this dissertation, it was proven that both monomeric (citrate) and polymeric (PAA) chelate modified Fenton reactions were effective for dechlorination of carbon tetrachloride from aqueous phase by the superoxide radical anion. On the other hand, PAA (a poly-chelating agent) can also be used for solid surface modification by polymerization of acrylic acid (monomer). The successful degradations of biphenyl and trichloroethylene by the PAA functionalized silica particles/membrane demonstrate the versatile applications of the chelate modified Fenton reaction.

Ο στόχος της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να διερευνηθεί η σχέση μεταξύ του οξειδωτικού στρες και του ικτέρου στα θηλαστικά in vivo, χρησιμοποιώντας ένα πειραματικό μοντέλο αποφρακτικού ικτέρου στους αρουραίους, καθώς επίσης και στο αίμα ανθρώπων με τον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο κακοήθους προέλευσης. Ειδικότερα, το οξειδωτικό στρες αξιολογήθηκε άμεσα με τη μέτρηση του σχηματισμού της ελεύθερης ρίζας του σουπεροξειδίου (του κεντρικού παράγοντα του οξειδωτικού στρες) και έμμεσα από την υπεροξείδωση λιπιδίων στις διαφορετικές περιοχές εγκεφάλου και σε ορισμένα εσωτερικά όργανα των αρουραίων (έντερο, συκώτι, καρδιά και νεφρό) και στο πλάσμα των ανθρώπων με τον αποφρακτικό ίκτερο. Διαπιστώθηκε ότι η ελεύθερη ρίζα του σουπεροξειδίου αυξάνεται στον εγκεφαλικό φλοιό 67%, τον μεσεγκέφαλο 37%, το συκώτι 75%, το νεφρό 87%, το έντερο 124% και στο ανθρώπινο αίμα 33%, ενώ τα λιπιδικά υπεροξείδια αυξήθηκαν στο νεφρό 30%, το έντερο 15% και το αίμα 128%. Η αύξηση στην ελεύθερη ρίζα του σουπεροξειδίου στο ανθρώπινο αίμα αποδόθηκε στην οξειδάση της ξανθίνης επειδή μειώθηκε στα επίπεδα των μαρτύρων όταν προεπωάστηκε με τον ειδικό αναστολέα της, την αλλοπουρινόλη. Η μελέτη είναι σημαντική όχι μόνο επειδή αποκαλύπτει τον κεντρικό ρόλο της ελεύθερης ρίζας του σουπεροξειδίου στους παθολογικές καταστάσεις όπως ο ίκτερος, αλλά και επειδή εισάγει την ελεύθερη ρίζα του σουπεροξειδίου ως έναν νέο κλινικό δείκτη στους ανθρώπους. / The aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between oxidative stress and jaundice in mamals in vivo, using an experimental obstructive jaundice model in rats, as well as in the blood of humans with obstructive jaundice of malignant origin. In particular, oxidative stress was assessed directly by measuring the rate of formation of superoxide radical (the central factor of oxidative stress), and indirectly by lipid peroxidation in different brain areas and in certain internal organs of rats (gut, liver, heart and kidney) and in plasma of humans with obstructive jaundice. It was found that superoxide radical was elevated in the cerebral cortex 67%, midbrain 37%, liver 75%, kidney 87%, gut 124% and in human blood 33%, while lipid peroxides were elevated in kidney 30%, gut 15% and blood 128%. The increase of superoxide radical in human blood was attributed to xanthine oxidase because it was decreased to control levels by its specific inhibitor allopurinol. The study is important not only because it uncovers the central role of superoxide radical in pathological conditions such as jaundice, but also because it introduces superoxide radical as a new clinical marker in humans.

Σκοπός της παρούσας διατριβής ήταν η μελέτη της σκληρωτιακής διαφοροποίησης στις τέσσερις βασικές μορφές της στους μυκηλιακούς μύκητες S. rolfsii, S. sclerotiorum, R. solani και S. minor σε σχέση με το οξειδωτικό στρες. Ως μάρτυρες για τους υπό μελέτη μύκητες χρησιμοποιήθηκαν αντίστοιχα μη σκληρωτιογόνα στελέχη. Τα πιο σημαντικά υπεροξείδια που συμβάλλουν στην δημιουργία οξειδωτικού στρες είναι: α) η ρίζα του σουπεροξειδίου (O2•-), που είναι το πρωταρχικό αίτιο του οξειδωτικού στρες, β) το υπεροξείδιο του υδρογόνου (H2O2), που κυρίως προκύπτει από την ένωση δύο μορίων O2•- (αντίδραση αυτοοξειδοαναγωγής) και γ) τα λιπιδικά υδροϋπεροξείδια (LOOH), που είναι από τα πρώιμα αποτελέσματα του οξειδωτικού στρες, λόγω της προσβολής των πολυακόρεστων λιπαρών οξέων. Επειδή λοιπόν στην διεθνή βιβλιογραφία δεν υπήρχε κατάλληλη μεθοδολογία για τον προσδιορισμό του O2•-, αναπτύχθηκε μια νέα μέθοδος εφαρμόσιμη εκτός από τους υπό μελέτη μύκητες, σε όλους τους οργανισμούς. Επιπλέον, χρησιμοποιήθηκε η ποσοτικοποίηση της συγκέντρωσης των βασικών ενζύμων που σχετίζονται με τα προαναφερθέντα υπεροξείδια τα οποία είναι: α) η δισμουτάση του O2•- (SOD), που επιταχύνει την αντίδραση αυτοοξειδοαναγωγής, β) η καταλάση (CAT), που καταναλώνει το H2O2, γ) οι μη εξειδικευμένες υπεροξειδάσες (NSPX) που χρησιμοποιούν το H2O2 και τα LOOH σαν υπόστρωμα για να οξειδώνουν άλλα μόρια και δ) η οξειδάση της ξανθίνης (ΧΟ), που ανιχνεύεται για πρώτη φορά σε μύκητες και είναι υπεύθυνη μεταξύ άλλων και για την παραγωγή του O2•- και H2O2 στους οργανισμούς. Ακόμη, έγινε εκτίμηση της οξειδωτικής καταστροφής των μεμβρανικών λιπιδίων με τη μέτρηση των αλδεϋδικών παραγώγων της υπεροξείδωσης των λιπιδίων (MDA). Τέλος, χρησιμοποιήθηκαν οι εξής εξωγενείς τροποποιητές των παραπάνω μορίων: α) μιμητές της SOD β) H2O2 γ) υδροϋπεροξείδιο του κουμενίου (λιπιδικό υδροϋπεροξείδιο) και δ) αμινοτριαζόλη (αναστολέας της CAT). Τα αποτελέσματα της μελέτης επιβεβαίωσαν την αναγκαιότητα της ανάπτυξης της νέας μεθόδου ποσοτικοποίησης του O2•-. Συγκεκριμένα, δείχθηκε ότι οι τέσσερις μορφές σκληρωτιακής διαφοροποίησης εξαρτώνται άμεσα από το οξειδωτικό στρες, και ότι οι σχετιζόμενοι με αυτό παράγοντες που εξετάστηκαν σε αυτή τη μελέτη μεταβάλλονται με διαφορετικό τρόπο σε κάθε μορφή σκληρωτιακής διαφοροποίησης. Τα βασικότερα συμπεράσματα αυτής της μελέτης είναι: α) το O2•- φαίνεται ότι παίζει έμμεσο ρόλο στην έναρξη της σκληρωτιογένεσης των μυκήτων S. rolfsii και S. sclerotiorum και άμεσο στων μυκήτων R. solani και S. minor και κύρια πηγή παραγωγής του O2•- είναι τα μιτοχόνδρια και δευτερευόντως η ΧΟ β) η SOD που υπάρχει σε όλους τους μύκητες χρησιμοποιείται από αυτούς για τη μετατροπή του O2•- σε H2O2 γ) η ΧΟ που μέχρι σήμερα δεν ήταν γνωστή η ύπαρξή της στους μύκητες, καθώς και η EC-SOD αλλά και το EC-H2O2, δεν σχετίζονται με τη διαφοροποίηση και ως γνωστόν μπορεί να εμπλέκονται στην προσβολή των φυτών ξενιστών από τους μύκητες αυτούς δ) το H2O2 επάγει την έναρξη της σκληρωτιογένεσης δρώντας σαν παράγοντας σημειακού κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού ε) η CAT που υπάρχει σε όλους τους μύκητες στο αδιαφοροποίητο μόνο στάδιο, μάλλον χρησιμοποιείται από αυτούς ώστε ο κυτταρικός πολλαπλασιασμός να μην γίνεται σε μεγάλη ένταση και αναστείλλει την σημειακή διαφοροποίηση ζ) οι NSPX που εντοπίζονται σε όλους τους μύκητες φαίνεται ότι ελέγχουν τα επίπεδα του H2O2 κυρίως στο διαφοροποιημένο στάδιο η) τα LOOH φαίνεται να δρουν στις μεμβράνες των μυκήτων και σχετίζονται με διαδικασίες μεταβίβασης κυτταρικών μηνυμάτων που επηρεάζουν τον κυτταρικό κύκλο θ) οι μιμητές της SOD Tiron και Tempol, που είχαν ανασταλτική δράση στην διαφοροποίηση θα μπορούσαν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως μη τοξικά αντιμυκητιακά παρασκευάσματα. / The purpose of this dissertation was the study of sclerotial differentiation, represented by four basic sclerotial types expressed by the filamentous fungi S. rolfsii, R. solani, S. sclerotiorum and S. minor in relation to oxidative stress. Non-sclerotium producing fungi were used as controls of the corresponding wild type strains. The most important peroxides that are responsible for oxidative stress are: a) superoxide radical (O2•-), the primary cause element of oxidative stress, b) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), produced by the reaction between two O2•- (dismutation reaction), and c) lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH), the primary consequences of oxidative destruction due to free radical attack to polyunsaturated fatty acids. Since there was not available any appropriate method for the quantification of O2•-, a new method was developed for the purpose of this study and its applicability was extended to any organism. In addition, the estimation of the concentration of certain enzymes that regulate the levels of the peroxides mentioned above was also used. These enzymes are a) superoxide dismutase (SOD), which catalyzes the dismutation reaction, b) catalase (CAT), which destroys H2O2, c) non-specific peroxidases (NSPX), which use either H2O2 or LOOH as substrates in order to oxidize other molecules and d) xanthine oxidase (XO), which was detected for the first time in fungi and is responsible, among other functions, for the production of O2•- in organisms. Furthermore, the aldehydic adducts of lipid peroxidation (MDA) were measured in order to evaluate the oxidative destruction of membrane lipids. Finally, specific externally added modulators of the above molecules were used, like: a) SOD mimetics b) H2O2 c) cumene hydroperoxide (lipid hydroperoxide) and d) aminotriazole (CAT inhibitor). The results of this study verified the need for the development of the new method for the quantification of O2•-. Specifically, it was found that the four studied types of sclerotial differentiation are directly related with oxidative stress, and that its components, tested in this study, are formed and changed variously, depending on the type of sclerotial differentiation. The most important conclusions of this study are: a) O2•- plays an indirect role in the initiation of sclerotiogenesis in fungi S. rolfsii and S. sclerotiorum, while in R. solani and S. minor its role is direct, and the main source that produces it in all four fungi are mitochondria and secondarily the ΧΟ enzyme, b) SOD is used by these fungi in order to convert O2•- to H2O2 via the dismutation reaction, c) ΧΟ which was found for the first time in fungi as well as EC-SOD and EC-H2O2, are not related with differentiation and possibly they are involved in tha attack of target plants by these fungi, d) H2O2 induces the initiation of sclerotiogenesis acting as a cell proliferating factor, e) CAT which was found in all fungi only in the undifferentiated stage, is probably used by them in order to control cell proliferation so as to avoid inhibition of sclerotiogenesis, f) NSPX are possibly used by these fungi in order to control H2O2 concentration mainly in the differentiated stage, g) LOOH appear to act on cell membrane and are related to signal transduction processes which affect cell cycle and h) SOD mimetics Tiron and Tempol, which reduced differentiation could be used as non-toxic fungicides.

Heute kennt man weit über 100 klinische Erkrankungen, bei denen Sauerstoffradikale am pathogenetischen Mechanismus beteiligt sind. Sauerstoffradikalbildung wird als Initiator oder Promotor des Alterungsprozesses, der Arteriosklerose, der postischemischen Organschäden, des Diabetes mellitus oder verschiedener neurologischer sowie dermatologischer Erkrankungen diskutiert. Besonderes Interesse gilt hierbei den Superoxidradikalen (O2-.), da ihre Bildung den Initialschritt des oxidativen Stresses, nämlich die Übertragung eines Elektrons auf das Sauerstoffmolekül, darstellt. Obwohl für den Nachweis der Superoxidradikalbildung eine Vielzahl verschiedener Methoden angewendet wird, gibt es zunehmend quantitative und qualitative Widersprüche bezüglich O2-. -Radikale in biologischen Systemen. Dies ist auf die mangelnde Vergleichbarkeit der unterschiedlichen Nachweismethoden zurückzuführen. Die vorliegende Untersuchung wurde zur Überprüfung der Eignung in der Praxis angewandter Superoxid-Nachweismethoden wie Photometrie (Cytochrom c , Epinephrin, Nitrotetrazolium blau), Chemilumineszenz (Luminol, Lucigenin) und ESR-Spintrapping (DMPO, DEPMPO) für biologische Fragestellungen unternommen. Als biologische O2-.-Quellen wurden submitochondriale Partikeln, Mitochondrien und polymorphkernige Neutrophile untersucht. Es wurde gezeigt, daß bei Anwendung eines standardisierten O2-. -generierenden Enzymsystems (Xanthin/Xantinoxidase) je nach Methode Wiederfidungsraten erhalten werden, die weniger bis sehr stark von den realen O2-. -Bildungsraten abweichen. Der Nachweis der Superoxidbildung über die Chemilumineszenz des Luminols und des Lucigenins hat gezeigt, daß die Intensität des ausgestrahlten Lichtes nicht nur durch die Bildungsrate der O2-.-Radikale bestimmt wird, sondern auch durch unspezifische Wechselwirkungen der Nachweissysteme mit den zu untersuchenden Objekten. Da vielen Nachweismethoden die Oxidation oder Reduktion der jeweiligen Nachweissubstanz durch Superoxidradikale zugrundeliegt, können die Nachweisreaktionen auch durch andere reduzierende oder oxidierende biologische Komponenten in Gang gesetzt werden. Eine Überprüfung der Selektivität einer Nachweismethode durch die Zugabe des O2-.-eliminierenden Enzyms SOD ist nicht immer möglich, da Superoxidradikale oft auch als Zwischenprodukte der Nachweisreaktionen auftreten und/oder SOD nicht immer den Zugang zur O2-.-Bildungsquelle hat. Spintrapping der Superoxidradikale mit DEPMPO kann hingegen als sicherer Beweis der Superoxidbildung betrachtet werden. Für einen quantitativen Nachweis der Superoxidradikale mittels Spintrapping sind jedoch Kenntnisse über die Stabilität des Spinadduktes in jedem konkreten System erforderlich. Ein mathematisches Modell für die Berechnung der Superoxidbildung in verschiedenen Nachweisystemen wurde erarbeitet. / Imbalanced production of oxygen-centered radicals is generally considered to play a major role in the pathogenesis of a great number of clinical diseases. Metabolic disorders and other derangements of homeostasis affect O2-salvage in a way which may trigger O2- radical formation. Inversely, if O2- radicals are formed in excess, a great variety of functional and structural alterations are expected to occur. It follows that an evaluation of the ranking of O2- radicals in the pathophysiological cascade of the various diseases requires reliable methods allowing identification of the respective reactive oxygen species (ROS), localization of the generation site and the analysis of the conditions required for O2- radical formation. Superoxide radicals (O2-.) are of major interest in this respect as this univalent reduction product is the starting molecule of all ROS possibly occurring in biological systems. Controversial reports on the existence, the sites and formation conditions of O2-.-radicals in the tissue may be due to the application of inadequate methods. The aim of this study was therefore to critically evaluate current O2-.-detection methods for their suitability and comparability. O2-.-radical release from xanthine/xanthine oxidase was assessed and used as a standardized O2-.-source. Spectrophotometric (cytochrom c, epinephrin, nitroblue tetrazolium), chemiluminescence (luminol, lucigenin) and ESR-spin trapping (DMPO, DEPMPO) detection methods were exposed to this O2-.-radical generating system and analyzed with respect to their selectivity and quantitative yield. In a second step the influence of the biological O2-.-generating systems such as submitochondrial particles, mitochondria and polymorphnuclear neutrophils on the available detection methods was tested. The results revealed great variations between the detection methods used both with respect to their selectivity for O2-.-registration and the quantitative analysis of the rates formed. All conventional O2-.-detection methods were found to be directly affected by the biological systems studied, spin trapping with DEPMPO being the most reliable method for qualitative O2-.-detection. Quantitative O2-.-detection requires knowledge about the stability of the respective adduct. A mathematical model for the calculation of O2-.-formation rate in various detection systems is worked out.

O uso de dieta hiperlipídica com banha de porco em roedores induz obesidade, resistência à insulina e disfunção das células beta do pâncreas. Em diversos tecidos de animais tratados com dieta hiperlipídica já se observou aumento de expressão e/ou atividade da NAD(P)H oxidase, que pode estar envolvida em processos fisiopatológicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar se a dieta hiperlipídica altera a expressão e/ou a atividade da NAD(P)H oxidase em ilhotas pancreáticas e se este fato pode estar associado às disfunções das células beta relatadas na literatura para este modelo animal. As ilhotas pancreáticas dos animais tratados com dieta apresentam maior secreção de insulina em alta glicose, maior metabolização da glicose, menos apoptose, menor expressão protéica de subunidades da enzima, menor produção de superóxido e não apresentam estresse oxidativo. O papel da enzima provavelmente se relaciona ao processo de secreção de insulina. A regulação de sua expressão e atividade deve estar relacionada à adaptação das ilhotas aos efeitos deletérios da dieta. / Feeding animals with high fat diet containing lard causes obesity, insulin resistance and dysfunction of pancreatic beta cells. High fat diet induces oxidative stress and modulates NAD(P)H oxidase expression and activity in many tissues. This enzyme may be involved in many pathophysiological processes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the action of high fat diet on NAD(P)H oxidase activity and expression and if this fact can be connected to the beta cell dysfunction reported in the literature on this animal model. In pancreatic islets of rats fed the high fat diet apoptosis was reduced, glucose metabolism increased, insulin secretion elevated at high glucose, protein expression of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits reduced and the superoxide production was diminished. There was no difference between the groups for oxidative stress markers. It is possible that the enzyme has a role in the process of insulin secretion. Probably the islets are regulating their activity and function to compensate the deleterious effect of lard.

O uso de dieta hiperlipídica com banha de porco em roedores induz obesidade, resistência à insulina e disfunção das células beta do pâncreas. Em diversos tecidos de animais tratados com dieta hiperlipídica já se observou aumento de expressão e/ou atividade da NAD(P)H oxidase, que pode estar envolvida em processos fisiopatológicos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar se a dieta hiperlipídica altera a expressão e/ou a atividade da NAD(P)H oxidase em ilhotas pancreáticas e se este fato pode estar associado às disfunções das células beta relatadas na literatura para este modelo animal. As ilhotas pancreáticas dos animais tratados com dieta apresentam maior secreção de insulina em alta glicose, maior metabolização da glicose, menos apoptose, menor expressão protéica de subunidades da enzima, menor produção de superóxido e não apresentam estresse oxidativo. O papel da enzima provavelmente se relaciona ao processo de secreção de insulina. A regulação de sua expressão e atividade deve estar relacionada à adaptação das ilhotas aos efeitos deletérios da dieta. / Feeding animals with high fat diet containing lard causes obesity, insulin resistance and dysfunction of pancreatic beta cells. High fat diet induces oxidative stress and modulates NAD(P)H oxidase expression and activity in many tissues. This enzyme may be involved in many pathophysiological processes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the action of high fat diet on NAD(P)H oxidase activity and expression and if this fact can be connected to the beta cell dysfunction reported in the literature on this animal model. In pancreatic islets of rats fed the high fat diet apoptosis was reduced, glucose metabolism increased, insulin secretion elevated at high glucose, protein expression of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits reduced and the superoxide production was diminished. There was no difference between the groups for oxidative stress markers. It is possible that the enzyme has a role in the process of insulin secretion. Probably the islets are regulating their activity and function to compensate the deleterious effect of lard.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The role of phenolic acids in mitigating salt stress tolerance have been well documented. However, there are contradicting reports on the effect of exogenously applied phenolic acids on the growth and development of various plants species. A general trend was observed where phenolic acids were shown to inhibit plant growth and development, with the exception of a few documented cases. One of these such cases is presented in this thesis. This study investigates the role of exogenously applied p-coumaric acid (p-CA) on physio-biochemical and molecular responses of chia seedlings under salt stress. This study is divided into three parts. Part one (Chapter 3) focuses on the impact of exogenous p-coumaric acid on the growth and development of chia seedlings. In this section, chia seedlings were supplemented with exogenous p-CA and the various biochemical and plant growth parameters were measured. The results showed that exogenous p-CA enhanced the growth of chia seedlings. An increase in chlorophyll, proline and superoxide oxide contents were also observed in the p-CA treatment relative to the control. We suggested that the increase in chia seedling growth could possibly be via the activation of reactive oxygen species-signalling pathway involving O2− under the control of proline accumulation (Chapter 3). Given the allopathy, nature of p-coumaric acid it is noteworthy that the response observed in this study may be species dependent, as contrasting responses have been reported in other plant species. Part two (Chapter 4) of this study investigates the influence of piperonylic acid (an inhibitor of endogenous p-coumaric acid) on the growth and development of chia seedlings. In trying to illustrate whether p-CA does play a regulatory role in enhancing pseudocereal plant growth, we treated chia seedlings with the irreversible inhibitor of C4H enzyme, to inhibit the biosynthesis of endogenous p-CA. In this section, chia seedlings were treated with piperonylic acid and changes in plant growth, ROS-induced oxidative damage, p-CA content and antioxidant capacity was monitored. Inhibition of endogenous p-CA restricted chia seedling growth by enhancing ROS-induced oxidative damage as seen for increased levels of superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and the extent of lipid peroxidation. Although an increase in antioxidant activity was observed in response to piperonylic acid, this increase was not sufficient to scavenge the ROS molecules to prevent oxidative damage and ultimate cellular death manifested as reduced plant growth. The results presented in this section support our hypothesis that p-CA play an important regulatory role in enhancing chia seedling growth and development as shown in Chapter 3. Part three (Chapter 5) seeks to identify and functionally characterise p-coumaric acid induced putative protein biomarkers under salt stress conditions in chia seedlings. Previous studies have shown that p-CA reversing the negative effect caused by NaCl-induced salt stress. While these studies were able to demonstrate the involvement of p-CA in promoting plant growth under salt stress conditions, they focussed primarily on the physiological aspect, which lacks in-depth biochemical and molecular analysis (ionomic and proteomic data) which could help in detecting the genes/proteins involved in salt stress tolerance mechanisms. A comparative ionomics and proteomic study was conducted, with the aim of elucidating the pivotal roles of essential macro elements and/or key protein markers involved in p-CA induced salt stress tolerance in chia seedlings. With the exception of Na, all the other macro elements were decreased in the salt treatment. Contrary to what was observed for the salt treatment most of the macro elements were increased in the p-CA treatment. However, the addition of exogenous p-CA to salt stressed seedlings showed an increase in essential macro elements such as Mg and Ca which have been shown to play a key role in plant growth and development. In the proteomic analysis we identified 907 proteins associated with shoots across all treatments. Interestingly, only eight proteins were conserved amongst all treatments. A total of 79 proteins were unique to the p-CA, 26 to the combination treatment (NaCl + p-CA) and only two proteins were unique to the salt stress treatment. The unique proteins identified in each of the treatments were functionally characterised to various subcellular compartments and biological processes. Most of the positively identified proteins were localised to the chloroplast and plays key roles in photosynthesis, transportation, stress responses and signal transduction pathways. Moreover, the protein biomarkers identified in this study (especially in the p-CA treatment) are putative candidates for genetic improvement of salt stress tolerance in plants.