The purpose of this study is to analyse the role of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) as an international governmental organisation in regional co-operation and stability from 1963 until 2000. It is also aims to evaluate the OAU's success or failure as the initiator of African unity and the driver of regional co-operation and stability in Africa within political, economic and social spheres. As background, the motivation for the study is discussed and the problem is stated. From this, research questions are formulated, and objectives identified. Three hypotheses are formed, which the study aimed to prove. The range of core theoretical foundations, concepts, characteristics, theories, approaches and classifications are examined in detail as foundations for an understanding and evaluation of the role of the OAU. Regional organisations as a phenomenon are also studied in-depth with reference to their nature, meaning and historical origins. Inter-state relations in the international community are theoretically explored, as well as the position and potential of regionalism within international public administration. Concepts, characteristics, types and functions of regional organisations and the role of co-operation, sovereignty and supra-nationalism in regional co-operation are covered. Following this, a study is made of the historical origins, nature and character of Pan-Africanism and the evolution of the OAU. Based on the structural-functional approach, the nature and essential characteristics of the organisation are analysed, with reference to its structures, and the tasks of the Secretary-General and its various commissions. In addition, the former relationship between the OAU and the UN is also highlighted. The role of the OAU is evaluated as a regional organisation involved in the establishment of regional co-operation in Africa in the political, economic, cultural and social spheres. The study concludes with an evaluative synthesis of its findings, proposals and conclusions. The OAU is found to have been successful in certain regards, but in others, it failed to attain its primary purpose: to forge unity on the continent and to create co-operation among states. Its successor, the African Union could learn some valuable lessons from the OAU's history. / Public Administration and Management / (D.P.A.)

Introdução: Uma elevada incidência de tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos e de adultos é observada nas regiões sul e sudeste do Brasil. Hiperexpressão dos genes IGF1R, SF1 e FGFR4 tem sido descrita em tumores adrenocorticais. Apesar de hiperexpressão ser um evento comum em diversas neoplasias, ainda não são claros os mecanismos moleculares que seriam responsáveis por essa falha na regulação da expressão. Objetivos: Determinar o número de cópias dos genes IGF1R, SF1 e FGFR4 em tumores adrenocorticais diagnosticados em crianças e adultos. Adicionalmente correlacionaremos os dados de expressão gênica e/ou protéica de IGF1R, SF1 e FGFR4 com o diagnóstico histológico e evolutivo dos tumores adrenocorticais. Pacientes e métodos: Sessenta e quatro pacientes com tumores adrenocorticais foram selecionados para o estudo. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos à avaliação clínica e tratamento cirúrgico. Oito glândulas adrenais normais obtidas em cirurgias renais ou autópsias foram utilizadas como controles. DNA genômico extraído dos tecidos normais e tumorais da glândula suprarrenal foram utilizados como substrato nas reações de multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) com o intuito de se determinar o número de cópias dos genes IGF1R, SF1 e FGFR4. PCR em tempo real (SYBR Green) foi realizado para confirmar os dados de MLPA para os genes IGF1R e SF1. Resultados: Amplificação do gene IGF1R foi detectada por MLPA e confirmada por PCR em tempo real SYBR Green em apenas um carcinoma adrenocortical. Adicionalmente, amplificação gênica de outros loci (IGFBP3, FGFR4 e NSD1) bem como de sondas controles foi observada, sugerindo uma condição aneuplóide neste tumor maligno. Amplificação de SF1 foi detectada em 10 tumores adrenocorticais (8 pediátricos e 2 de adultos). Os valores de expressão gênica foram significantemente maiores em tumores associados com amplificação gênica quando comparados com tumores sem amplificação. Além disso, imunorreatividade para SF-1 foi detectada nos tumores com aumento no número de cópias. Doze amplificações do locus FGFR4 (3 pediátricos e 9 de adultos) foram demonstradas por MLPA. A amplificação do locus FGFR4 e hiperexpressão deste gene foram significantemente mais relacionados a carcinomas. Conclusões: Amplificação do gene IGF1R é um evento raro nos tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos e de adultos. A hiperexpressão de IGF1R em tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos não foi secundária à amplificação gênica. Amplificação do gene SF1 foi evidenciada predominantemente em tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos e se correlacionou com hiperexpressão gênica e protéica. Amplificação do locus FGFR4 foi demonstrada predominantemente em tumores adrenocorticais malignos de adultos. Amplificação de oncogenes representa um mecanismo molecular relevante na tumorigênese adrenocortical / Introduction: A high incidence of adrenocortical tumors in children and adults has been observed in Southern and Southeastern regions of Brazil. Overexpression of IGF1R, SF1 and FGFR4 genes have been described in adrenocortical tumors. Despite of overexpression be a common event in several neoplasias, the molecular mechanism implicated in this upregulation remains unknown. Objectives: To determine the copy number of IGF1R, SF1 and FGFR4 genes in pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors. Additionally, correlate with IGF1R, SF1 and FGFR4 gene and/or protein expression data as well as with the histological diagnosis and evolution of the adrenocortical tumors. Patients and methods: Sixty and four patients with adrenocortical tumors were selected for this study. All patients were submitted to clinical evaluation and surgical treatment. Eight normal adrenal glands obtained in renal surgery or autopsies were used as controls. The MLPA reactions were performed with the DNA extracted from adrenal gland tissues in order to determine the copy number of IGF1R, SF1 and FGFR4 genes. SYBR Green real-time PCR was carried out to confirm MLPA data for IGF1R and SF1 genes. Results: IGF1R amplification was detected by MLPA and confirmed by SYBR green real-time PCR in only one adrenocortical carcinoma. Additionally, other loci amplification was detected (IGFBP3, FGFR4 and NSD1) as well as for control probes, suggesting aneuploidy in this malignant tumor. SF1 amplifications were shown in 10 adrenocortical tumors (8 from children and 2 from adults). The SF1 mRNA levels were significantly higher in adrenocortical tumors associated with increased SF1 gene copies when compared with adrenocortical tumors without gene amplification. Moreover, all adrenocortical tumors with SF1 gene amplification showed a strong SF1 staining. Twelve FGFR4 locus amplifications (3 from children and 9 from adults) were demonstrated by MLPA. FGFR4 locus amplification and overexpression of this gene were significantly more related to carcinomas. Conclusions: IGF1R amplification is a rare event in adrenocortical tumors and it was not responsible for the IGF1R overexpression of pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors. SF1 gene amplification was detected predominantly in pediatric adrenocortical tumors and was associated with gene and protein overexpression. FGFR4 locus amplification was demonstrated mainly in adult maligant adrenocortical tumors. FGFR4 amplification and upregulation were more associated to adrenocortical carcinomas. Oncogenes amplification represents an important molecular mechanism in adrenocortical tumorigenesis

Introdução: A patogênese molecular dos tumores adrenocorticais é heterogênea e ainda pouco compreendida. A hiperexpressão do gene do fator de crescimento semelhante à insulina II (IGF-II) tem sido demonstrada na maioria dos carcinomas adrenocorticais em adultos. Os efeitos mitogênicos do IGF-II são mediados pela interação com o receptor de IGF-I (IGF-IR). Adicionalmente, o fator esteroidogênico 1 (SF-1) e o fator codificado por uma região crítica do cromossomo X associada ao sexo reverso e à hipoplasia adrenal congênita (DAX-1), ambos envolvidos no desenvolvimento e na esteroidogênese adrenal, também têm sido implicados na tumorigênese adrenocortical. Objetivos: Analisar a expressão gênica e a imunorreatividade dos fatores IGF-II, IGF-IR, SF-1 e DAX-1 em tumores adrenocorticais de crianças e adultos. Avaliamos ainda os efeitos de um inibidor seletivo do IGF-IR (NVP-AEW541) na proliferação celular e apoptose de linhagens celulares de tumores adrenocorticais. Métodos: Neste estudo, a expressão gênica foi determinada por PCR quantitativa em tempo real em 57 tumores adrenocorticais (37 adenomas e 20 carcinomas). Vinte e três pacientes tinham idade inferior ou igual a 15 anos. A análise de imunohistoquímica foi realizada em 109 tumores adrenocorticais (71 adenomas e 38 carcinomas). Os efeitos do tratamento com NVP-AEW541 (0,3 a 30 M) na proliferação celular e apoptose foram avaliados nas células NCI H295 de carcinoma adrenocortical humano e em uma nova linhagem celular estabelecida a partir de um adenoma adrenocortical pediátrico da nossa casuística. Resultados: A hiperexpressão do gene IGF-II foi evidenciada nos tumores adrenocorticais benignos e malignos de crianças (média ± EPM, 50,8 ± 18,5 vs. 31,2 ± 3,7, respectivamente; p= 0,23). Em adultos, a expressão do gene IGF-II foi significativamente mais elevada nos carcinomas adrenocorticais quando comparada com os adenomas (270,5 ± 130,2 vs. 16,1 ± 13,3; p= 0,0001). O percentual das células neoplásicas imunorreativas para o IGF-II não foi significativamente diferente entre os adenomas e carcinomas adrenocorticais pediátricos (14,1 ± 2,8% vs. 31,1 ± 13,1%, respectivamente; p= 0,32). Em adultos, o percentual das células neoplásicas positivas para o IGF-II foi significativamente maior nos carcinomas adrenocorticais em relação aos adenomas (34,4 ± 5,8% vs. 14,2 ± 3,2, respectivamente; p= 0,03). Os valores de RNAm do IGF-IR foram significativamente mais elevados nos carcinomas adrenocorticais pediátricos em relação aos adenomas (9,1 ± 1,2 vs. 2,6 ± 0,3; p= 0,0001), enquanto a expressão deste receptor foi similar nos tumores adrenocorticais benignos e malignos de adultos (1,6 ± 0,3 vs. 1,8 ± 0,5, respectivamente; p= 0,75). Os valores de RNAm do IGF-IR [risco relativo (RR) 2,0, intervalo de confiança (IC) de 95% 1,2 a 3,1; p= 0,004] e os critérios histopatológicos de Weiss (RR 1,8, IC de 95% 1,2 a 2,7; p= 0,003) foram marcadores independentes de metástases em crianças e adultos, respectivamente. O NVP-AEW541 inibiu a proliferação celular estimulada por IGF-II de forma dose e tempo dependentes nas 2 linhagens celulares de tumores adrenocorticais através de uma significativa indução da apoptose. Adicionalmente, a hiperexpressão do gene SF-1 foi identificada em 13% e 15% dos tumores adrenocorticais diagnosticados em crianças e adultos, respectivamente. O percentual das células neoplásicas com imunorreatividade nuclear para SF-1 foi significativamente maior nos tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos em relação aos tumores diagnosticados em adultos (29,1 ± 5,4% vs. 8,3 ± 2,3%, respectivamente; p= 0,0001). Estes dados indicam que o aumento da expressão do SF-1 nos tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos ocorre em nível pós-traducional. A hiperexpressão do gene DAX-1 foi identificada em 39% dos tumores adrenocorticais, com uma prevalência semelhante em crianças e adultos. De forma similar, o aumento da expressão da proteína DAX-1 foi identificado em 36% e 27% dos tumores adrenocorticais diagnosticados em crianças e adultos, respectivamente. A imunorreatividade nuclear para DAX- 1 foi semelhante nos adenomas e carcinomas adrenocorticais (29,2 ± 3,8% vs. 21,4 ± 5,8% das células neoplásicas, respectivamente; p= 0,12). Conclusões: A hiperexpressão do IGF-II tem um papel relevante na tumorigênese adrenocortical. A hiperexpressão do gene IGF-IR foi um marcador biológico independente do carcinoma adrenocortical metastático em crianças. Os efeitos anti-tumorais in vitro do NVP-AEW541 sugerem que o IGF-IR constitui um potencial alvo terapêutico para o carcinoma adrenocortical humano. Adicionalmente, o aumento da expressão do SF-1 foi evidenciado predominantemente nos tumores adrenocorticais pediátricos. A hiperexpressão do DAX-1 constitui um evento importante na patogênese molecular dos tumores adrenocorticais benignos e malignos / Introduction: The molecular pathogenesis of adrenocortical tumors is heterogeneous and incompletely understood. Insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) overexpression has been demonstrated in adult adrenocortical carcinomas. IGF-II exerts its mitogenic effects through interaction with IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR). In addition, steroidogenic factor 1 gene (SF-1) and dosage-sensitive sex reversal-adrenal hypoplasia congenita critical region on the X chromosome gene (DAX-1), which regulate adrenal development and steroidogenesis, have been also involved in adrenocortical tumorigenesis. Objectives: To analyze gene and protein expression of IGF-II, IGF-IR, SF-1 and DAX-1 in pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors. We also evaluated the effects of a selective IGF-IR kinase inhibitor (NVP-AEW541) on adrenocortical tumor cell lines. Methods: Gene expression was determined by quantitative real-time PCR in 57 adrenocortical tumors (37 adenomas and 20 carcinomas) from 23 children and 34 adults. Twenty and three patients were younger than 15 years. A tissue microarray analysis was performed on a large cohort of 109 ACT (71 adenomas and 38 carcinomas; 39 children and 70 adults) In addition, the effects of NVP-AEW541 treatment (0.3 to 30M) on proliferation and apoptosis were investigated in the NCI H295 cell line and in a new cell line established from a pediatric adrenocortical adenoma of our cohort. Results: IGF-II transcripts were overexpressed in pediatric adrenocortical carcinomas and adenomas (mean ± SE, 50.8 ± 18.5 vs. 31.2 ± 3.7, respectively; p= 0.23). IGF-II gene expression was significantly higher in adult adrenocortical carcinomas than in adenomas (270.5 ± 130.2 vs. 16.1 ± 13.3; p= 0.0001). The percentual of neoplastic cells immunostaining for IGF-II was not statistically different between pediatric adrenocortical adenomas and carcinomas (14.1 ± 2.8% vs. 31.1 ± 13.1%, respectively; p= 0.32). Otherwise, the percentual of positive neoplastic cells for IGF-II was significantly higher in adult adrenocortical carcinomas than in adenomas (34.4 ± 5.8% vs. 14.2 ± 3.2, respectively; p= 0.03). IGF-IR mRNA levels were significantly higher in pediatric adrenocortical carcinomas than in adenomas (9.1 ± 1.2 vs. 2.6 ± 0.3; p= 0.0001), whereas similar IGF-IR expression levels were identified in adult adrenocortical carcinomas and adenomas (1.6 ± 0.3 vs. 1.8 ± 0.5, respectively; p= 0.75). In a Cox multivariate analysis, IGF-IR gene expression [hazard ratio (HR) 2.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2 to 3.1; p= 0.004] and Weiss score (HR 1.7, 95% CI 1.2 to 2.7; p= 0.003) were independent biomarkers of metastasis in pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors, respectively. Furthermore, NVP-AEW541 blocked cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner in both NCI H295 and pediatric adrenocortical cell lines through a significant increase of apoptosis. Additionally, SF-1 gene overexpression was identified in 13% and 15% of pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors, respectively. The percentual of neoplastic cells with nuclear immunoreactivity for SF-1 was significantly higher in pediatric than in adult adrenocortical tumors (29.1 ± 5.4% vs. 8.3 ± 2.3%, respectively; p= 0.0001). These findings suggest that SF-1 overexpression occurs at the translational level in pediatric adrenocortical tumors. DAX-1 gene overexpression was identified in 39% of adrenocortical tumors with a similar frequency in children and adults. Similarly, DAX-1 protein overexpression was identified in 36% and 27% of pediatric and adult adrenocortical tumors, respectively. DAX-1 immunostaining on nuclei was not statistically different in benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors (29.2 ± 3.8% vs. 21.4 ± 5.8% of neoplastic cells, respectively; p= 0.12). Conclusion: IGF-II overexpression has a pivotal role to adrenocortical tumorigenesis. IGFIR overexpression was a potential biomarker of metastases in children with adrenocortical carcinoma. We demonstrated that a selective IGF-IR kinase inhibitor had anti-tumor effects in adult and pediatric ACT cell lines, suggesting that IGF-IR inhibitors represent a promising therapy for human adrenocortical carcinoma. In addition, SF-1 overexpression might be mainly involved in pediatric adrenocortical tumorigenesis. DAX-1 overexpression has an important role to molecular pathogenesis of benign and malignant adrenocortical tumors

Parallèlement aux États, qui monopolisent le système interétatique, il existe une myriade d’acteurs non étatiques qui se déploie et exerce certaines compétences, telles que l’établissement de normes et la résolution de conflits sur la scène internationale. Or, le droit international classique, admettant peu de sujets en son sein, refuse de reconnaître pleinement le rôle joué par les acteurs non étatiques. Il se trouve par conséquent que le droit international classique n’arrive ni à décrire de manière appropriée, ni à expliquer adéquatement la gouvernance mondiale de la société internationale dans toute sa complexité contemporaine. Notre thèse a pour but de démontrer l’importance de la perte ou du gain de légitimité démocratique résultant de la participation des acteurs infra, supra, et extra étatiques aux relations transnationales. Elle met en évidence les rapports verticaux et horizontaux qu’entretiennent les États avec les autres entités juridiques à des degrés minimalistes ou maximalistes de partage de compétences. Notre thèse qualifie cette situation de phénomène concret de la réalité actuelle. Afin de décrire les tenants et aboutissants de cette situation, nous traçons les grandes lignes d’une nouvelle théorie de droit transnational adaptée aux nouvelles conjonctures contemporaines, fondée non pas sur le positivisme westphalien, mais sur le pluralisme juridique. La théorie du positivisme juridique, qui était encore valable jusqu'à la fin de la guerre froide, semble dépassée dans le monde du 21e siècle. Les compétences étatiques fondées sur le modèle westphalien de la souveraineté territoriale sont désormais partagées et exercées par une gamme d’acteurs non étatiques. La compétence d’autorégulation de ces derniers trouve son fondement dans le savoir technoscientifique et spécialisé dans un secteur d'activités particulier, qui s’étend au-delà et en deçà des frontières étatiques. Cette nouvelle manifestation de la souveraineté peut être incorporée dans le droit transnational. La mise en œuvre de cet ordre juridique complexe du modèle transnational repose sur des mécanismes de consensus qui relient les États, les unités sous-étatiques, les organisations internationales et les autres acteurs non étatiques. L’interdépendance mutuelle des différents acteurs internationaux a pour effet d’écarter la justification de la contrainte physique comme étant la garantie de respect du droit, car le besoin d’une solidarité planétaire exige la coopération de tous les acteurs pour faire face aux nouveaux défis mondiaux et locaux. Cette nouvelle théorie doit servir de base pour élaborer un discours juridique qui repose sur sa force argumentative, et non sur la force de la coercition. Le pluralisme juridique semble offrir cette possibilité.

Pertinence. Compléter des tests d’endurance cardiorespiratoire maximaux basés sur la performance chez les utilisateurs de fauteuils roulants manuels est très pertinent pour développer des programmes d'entraînement cardiorespiratoire personnalisés et pour évaluer leurs impacts au fil du temps. Cependant, ces tests augmentent potentiellement l’exposition au risque de développement de troubles musculosquelettiques secondaires aux membres supérieurs, particulièrement aux épaules. Par conséquent, il est fondamental de trouver un équilibre entre la nécessité de mesurer la capacité aérobie et le risque accru de développer des troubles musculosquelettiques secondaires lors de la réalisation d'un test basé sur les performances. Objectif. Caractériser les effets de la performance d’un test de propulsion progressif par paliers sur tapis roulant sur l'intégrité des tendons de la longue portion du biceps et du supra-épineux en utilisant des biomarqueurs obtenus via l'imagerie musculosquelettique par ultrasonographie. Méthode. Quinze utilisateurs de fauteuils roulants manuels vivant avec une lésion chronique de la moelle épinière ont complété le test de propulsion progressif par paliers sur tapis roulant. Des images des tendons de la longue portion du biceps et du supra- épineux ont été enregistrées avec un appareil d’imagerie musculosquelettique par ultrasonographie dans les plans transversal et longitudinal avant, immédiatement après et 48 heures après la fin du test en suivant un protocole standardisé. Des biomarqueurs ultrasonographiques liés à la géométrie, à la luminosité et à la texture d’une région d’intérêt ont permis de caractériser l'intégrité des tendons. Résultats. Les participants ont propulsé en moyenne pendant 10,2 ± 2,9 minutes alors que la majorité d’entre eux (N = 13/15) a atteint au moins le huitième stade du test (vitesse = 0,8 m / s; pente = 3,6 ̊). Aucun des biomarqueurs géométriques, de luminosité et de texture caractérisant l'intégrité des deux tendons, mesurés dans les plans longitudinal et transverse, n’a changé de façon significative (p = 0,063 à 1 000) entre les trois temps de mesure. Conclusion. La performance du test de propulsion progressif par paliers sur tapis roulant motorisé pour évaluer la capacité aérobie n'amène aucun changement délétère observable immédiatement après et 48 heures après la réalisation du test. / Relevance. The completion of performance-based maximal cardiorespiratory fitness tests among manual wheelchair user is highly relevant to develop personalized cardiorespiratory fitness training programs and to assess their impacts over time. However, these tests could potentially increase risk exposure for the development of upper limb secondary musculoskeletal impairments specifically to the shoulder. Hence, finding an equilibrium between the need to measure aerobic fitness and the increased risk of developing secondary musculoskeletal impairments when completing performance-based test is fundamental. Objective. To characterize the effect of the completion of a recently- developed treadmill-based progressive workload incremental test on the integrity of the long head of the biceps and supraspinatus tendons using musculoskeletal ultrasound imaging biomarkers. Method. Fifteen manual wheelchair users living with a spinal cord injury completed the treadmill-based progressive workload incremental test. Ultrasound images of the long head of the biceps and supraspinatus tendons were recorded with a musculoskeletal ultrasound imaging device in the transversal and longitudinal planes before, immediately after, and 48 hours after the completion of the test using a standardized protocol. Geometric, luminosity, and texture-related ultrasound biomarkers of a region of interest have characterized tendon integrity. Results. The participants propelled an average of 10.2 ± 2.9 minutes with the majority (N = 13/15) reached at least the eighth stage of the test (speed = 0.8 m/s; slope = 3.6 ̊). None of the geometric, luminosity and texture biomarkers characterizing the integrity of the two tendons, measured in the longitudinal and transversal planes, changed significantly (p=0.063 to 1.000) between the three measurement times. Conclusion. The performance of the treadmill-based progressive workload propulsion test to assess aerobic capacity does not result in any observable deleterious change immediately after and 48 hrs after the performance of the test.

Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es eine Beziehung zwischen den biophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Nervenmembran, und den ausgeführten Berechnungen und Filtereigenschaften eines tonisch feuernden Neurons, unter Einbeziehen intrinsischer Fluktuationen, herzustellen. Zu diesem Zweck werden zu erst die mikroskopischen Fluktuationen, die durch das stochastische Öffnen und Schließen der Ionenkanäle verursacht werden, zu makroskopischer Varibilität in den Zeitpunkten des Auftretens der Aktionspotentiale übersetzt, denn es sind diese Spikezeiten die in vielen sensorischen Systemen informationstragenden sind. Die Methode erlaubt es das stochastischer Verhalten komplizierter Ionenkanalstrukturen mit einer großen Zahl an Untereinheiten, in Spikezeitenvariabilität zu übersetzen. Als weiteres werden die Filtereigenschaften der Nervenzellen in der überschwelligen Dynamik, also bei Existenz eines stabilen Grenzzyklus, aus ihren Phasenantwortkurven (PAK), einer Eigenschaft des linearisierten adjungierten Flusses auf dem Grenzzyklus, in einem stöhrungstheoretischen Ansatz berechnet. Es ergibt sich, dass Charakteristika des Filter, wie beispielsweise die DC Komponente und die Eigenschaften des Filters um die Fundamentalfrequenz und ihrer Harmonien, von den Fourierkomponenten der PAK abhängen. Unter Verwendung der hergeleiteten Filter und weiterer Annahmen ist es möglich das frequenzabhängige Signal-zu-Rauschen Verhältnis zu berechnen, und damit eine untere Schranke für die Informationstransferrate eines Leitfähigkeitsmodells zu berechnen. Unter Zuhilfenahme der numerischen Kontinuierungsmethode ist es möglich die Veränderungen in der Spikevariabilität und den Filtern für jeden biophysikalischen Parameter des System zu verfolgen. Weiterhin wurde die verwendete Phasenreduktion durch eine Korrektur ergänzt, die die Radialdynamik einbezieht. Es zeigt sich, dass die Krümmung der Isochronen einen Einfluss darauf hat ob das Rauschen einen positiven oder negativen Frequenzschift hervorruft. / The goal of the thesis is to establish quantitative, analytical relations between the biophysical properties of nerve membranes and the performed neuronal computations for neurons in a tonically spiking regime and in the presence of intrinsic noise. For this purpose, two major lines of investigation are followed. Firstly, microscopic noise caused by the stochastic opening and closing of ion channels is mapped to the macroscopic spike jitter that affects neural coding. The method is generic enough to allow one to treat Markov channel models with complicated, high-dimensional state spaces and calculate from them the noise in the coding variable, i.e., the spike time. Secondly, the suprathreshold filtering properties of neurons are derived, based on the phase response curves (PRCs) by perturbing the associated Fokker-Planck equations. It turns out that key characteristics of the filter, such as the DC component of the gain and the behaviour near the fundamental frequency and its harmonics are related to the particular Fourier components of the PRC and hence the bifurcation type of the neuron. With the help of the derived filter and further approximations one is able to calculate the frequency resolved signal-to-noise ration and finally the total information transmission rate of a conductance based model. Using the method of numerical continuation it is possible to calculate the change in spike time noise level as well as the filtering properties for arbitrary changes in biophysical parameter such as varying channel densities or mean input to the cell. We extend the phase reduction to include correction terms from the amplitude dynamics that are related to the curvature of the isochrons and provide a method to identify the required amplitude sensitivities numerically. It can be shown that the curvature of the isochron has a direct consequence for the noise induced frequency shift.

Introdução: Os receptores do peptídeo insulinotrópico dependente de glicose (GIPR) e do hormônio luteinizante (LHCGR) são receptores acoplados à proteína G com amplo padrão de expressão tecidual. A expressão anômala destes receptores tem sido descrita em casos de hiperplasia adrenal macronodular independente de ACTH (AIMAH) e em alguns adenomas, resultando em aumento da secreção hormonal (cortisol, andrógenos e aldosterona) pelo cortex adrenal. O papel destes receptores em outras formas de hiperplasia, como a doença adrenocortical nodular pigmentosa primária (PPNAD), aumento da adrenal associado à neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 1 (MEN1), e em carcinoma do córtex adrenal tem sido pouco investigado; sendo assim, considera-se relevante estudar a expressão destes receptores nos pacientes com tumores adrenocorticais esporádicos, nos pacientes com AIMAH, PPNAD e aumento adrenal associado à MEN1. Objetivos: 1) Caracterização molecular dos casos de neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 1 e PPNAD: pesquisa de mutações dos genes MEN1 e PRKAR1A e análise da perda de heterozigose (LOH) destes genes no tecido adrenal destes pacientes. 2) Quantificar a expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR em tecido adrenocortical normal, tumoral, hiperplásico e correlacionar a expressão destes com a classificação histológica dos tumores adrenocorticais. Pacientes: 55 pacientes (30 adultos) com tumores adrenocorticais (37 adenomas e 18 carcinomas); 7 pacientes com AIMAH, 4 com MEN1, 1 com PPNAD e tecidos controles (adrenal; testículo e pâncreas). Métodos: extração de DNA genômico, RNA e síntese de DNA complementar (cDNA); amplificação por PCR das regiões codificadoras dos genes MEN1 e PRKAR1A seguida por seqüenciamento automático. Pesquisa de LOH pela amplificação de microssatélites por PCR e análise pelo programa GeneScan. Quantificação da expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR por PCR em tempo real pelo método TaqMan e estudo de imunohistoquímica para GIPR nos tumores adrenocorticais. Resultados: identificação de 3 mutações (893+ 1G>A, W183X e A68fsX118) e dois polimorfirmos (S145S e D418D) no gene MEN1 e uma mutação (Y21X) no PRKAR1A. Ausência de LOH nos tecidos adrenais estudados. A expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR foi identificada em tecidos adrenais normais, tumorais e hiperplásicos. O nível de expressão do GIPR foi mais elevado nos tumores adrenocorticais malignos que nos benignos tanto no grupo pediátrico (mediana= 18,1 e 4,6, respectivamente; p <0,05), quanto no grupo adulto (mediana = 4,8 e 1,3 respectivamente; p <0,001). O nível de expressão do LHCGR, no grupo pediátrico, foi elevado tanto nos tumores benignos quanto nos malignos (mediana= 6,4 e 4,3, respectivamente). No grupo adulto os níveis de expressão deste receptor foram extremamente baixos nos tumores malignos em relação aos benignos (mediana= 0,06 e 2,3, respectivamente; p <0,001). A imunohistoquímica para o GIPR foi variável e não correlacionada à expressão do gene GIPR. Não houve diferença nos níveis de expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR nas hiperplasias do córtex adrenal. Conclusões: a presença de LOH e mutação em heterozigose composta do gene MEN1 e do PRKAR1A foram afastadas como mecanismos responsáveis pelo aumento adrenal tanto nos pacientes com MEN1 como no paciente com PPNAD. A hiperexpressão de GIPR está associada a malignidade nos tumores adrenocorticais nos grupos adulto e pediátrico e a baixa expressão de LHCGR está associada a malignidade nos tumores adrenocorticais somente no grupo adulto. / Introduction: The glucose- dependent insulinotropic peptide receptor (GIPR) and luteinizing hormone receptor (LHCGR) are G-protein coupled receptors with a wide tissue expression pattern. The aberrant expression of these receptors has been described in cases of ACTH-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (AIMAH) and in some adenomas, resulting in the increase of adrenal cortex hormonal secretion (cortisol, androgens and aldosterone). The role of these receptors in other forms of adrenocortical hyperplasia, such as primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD), adrenal enlargement associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1), and adrenocortical carcinoma has been scarcely investigated. Thus, the study of the expression of these receptors in patients with sporadical adrenocortical tumors, AIMAH, PPNAD and adrenal enlargement associated to MEN1 was considered important. Objectives: 1) Molecular study in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and PPNAD: mutation screening of MEN1 and PRKAR1A genes and analysis of the loss of heterozygosis (LOH) of these genes in the adrenal lesions of these patients. 2) To quantify the GIPR and LHCGR expression, in normal, tumor and hyperplasic tissue and to correlate the expression of these receptors with the adrenocortical tumor histology. Patients: 55 patients (30 adults) with adrenocortical tumors (37 adenomas and 18 carcinomas); 7 patients with AIMAH, 4 with MEN1, 1 with PPNAD and control tissue (adrenal, testis and pancreas). Methods: Extraction of genomic DNA, RNA and synthesis of complementary DNA (cDNA); PCR-amplification of the coding regions of MEN1 and PRKAR1A, followed by direct sequencing. LOH study using polymorphic marker amplification by PCR and GeneScan software analysis. Quantification of GIPR and LHCGR expression using realtime PCR -TaqMan method and GIPR immunohistochemistry study in adrenocortical tumors. Results: Identification of 3 mutations (893+ 1G>A, W183X and A68fsX118) and two polymorphic alterations (S145S and D418D) in MEN1 and a mutation (Y21X) in the PRKAR1A gene; LOH was not identified in adrenal tissue. The GIPR and LHCGR expression was identified in normal, tumor and hyperplasic adrenal tissues; the GIPR expression level was more elevated in malignant tumors compared to benign tumors in pediatric (median = 18.1 and 4.6, respectively; p <0.05) and adult patients (median = 4.8 and 1.3 respectively; p <0.001). The LHCGR expression in pediatric patients was elevated in benign as well as in malignant tumors (median = 6.4 and 4.3, respectively). In the adult group, the expression level of these receptors was extremely low in malignant tumors in relation to benign ones (median = 0.06 and 2.3, respectively; p <0.001). The GIPR immunohistochemistry was variable and did not correlate with GIPR gene expression. No difference between GIPR and LHCGR expression levels was observed in the different forms of hyperplasia. Conclusions: The presence of LOH and mutations in compound heterozygosis of MEN1 and PRKAR1A genes were ruled out as the mechanisms responsible for the adrenal enlargement in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. GIPR overexpression is associated with malignant adrenocortical tumors in the adult and pediatric patients and low LHCGR expression is associated with malignant adrenocortical tumors only in the adult patients.

Ce mémoire pour l'obtention de l'Habilitation à Diriger les Recherche de l'Ecole Doctorale Chimie et Sciences du Vivant (N°218) de l'Université de Grenoble est organisé en 9 chapitres. Il se subdivise entre 2 grande parties "administrative/administration de la recherche" et "activités et projet de recherche". Ce découpage volontairement fin a pour objectif principal de permettre une localisation rapide des différents types d'informations que les lecteurs de ce manuscrit y rechercheront. Deux sections "remerciements" et "préambule" suivent immédiatement la table générale des matières qui guidera les lecteurs dans la découverte de ce mémoire. Dans une volonté de clarté, chaque chapitre débute par une table des matières spécifique qui décrit plus précisément son contenu. Dans la partie "administrative/administration de la recherche" (Chapitres I-IV et IX) de ce mémoire, j'ai condensé, selon un découpage classique (CV, fonctions d'encadrement et de formation par la recherche, participations à des contrats/programmes de recherche et une synthèse de mes productions scientifique) un ensemble d'informations mises à disposition des lecteurs et du jury pour que ses membres y trouvent, rapidement je l'espère, les éléments d'intérêts qui leurs seront utiles pour évaluer ces aspects de mon activité scientifique. Pour parfaire les données brutes contenues dans le chapitre IV, je présente dans le chapitre IX une liste exhaustive (à la date du 1er juillet 2013) de mes productions scientifiques. Celle-ci est structurée selon une série de codes (e.g. Px pour Publication N°x) qui apparaissent tout au long des chapitres V-VIII et qui permettront ainsi aux membres du jury et aux lecteurs de localiser rapidement les productions associées aux travaux décrits. Le caractère exhaustif s'envisage ainsi comme l'empreinte scientifique de mes travaux au 1er juillet 2013. Dans la partie activités de recherches (Chapitres V-VII) et projet de recherche (Chapitre VIII) de ce manuscrit, je me suis attaché à décrire en premier lieu, aussi brièvement que possible mais systématiquement, les contextes historiques, scientifiques et personnels dans lesquels j'ai développé mes activités de recherches (Chapitres V-VII). Ainsi, j'espère d'une part rendre, par quelques rappels que certains jugeront sans doute élémentaires, l'accès plus facile aux non-spécialistes et d'autre part faciliter la lecture et le jugement du jury. Toujours animé d'une volonté de cohérence et de clarté, j'ai fait le choix délibéré d'une progression chronologique (thèse, expérience postdoctorale, activités en tant que CR-CNRS et projet de recherche) pour rendre compte de la réalité du développement de mes travaux. Ainsi loin de présenter un survol des différents projets que j'ai (co-)développés, j'ai préféré insister sur le traitement personnel réservé aux trois thématiques et problématiques qui sont au cœur de mon activité scientifique en les illustrant par des exemples choisis à dessin pour effectuer une mise en abyme du projet de recherche présenté dans le chapitre VIII qui constitue l'aboutissement de la démarche rédactionnelle de ce mémoire. Les chapitres V-VIII se terminent par des sections bibliographiques spécifiques où sont indexées et détaillées les références citées au fil du texte.

La mesure du fond diffus cosmologique est depuis les années 1980 au centre des préoccupations majeures de la cosmologie observationnelle. Aujourd'hui, le défis est la détection des modes B de polarisation de ce rayonnement. Ceux-ci constituent une signature des ondes gravitationnelles primordiales. Afin de pouvoir atteindre cet objectif, nous avons besoin d'instruments offrant des performances exceptionnelles autant au niveau des composants que de l'architecture. Cette thèse s'intéresse de près à des composants planaires supra-conducteurs conçus pour être intégrés dans ces instruments : en particulier des filtres, des diplexeurs de polarisation et des modulateurs de phase. Ces composants pourront être utilisés dans l'interférométrie bolométrique, une architecture de détection particulièrement novatrice. L'expérience QUBIC dédié à l'observation des modes B est basé sur une telle architecture.

Introdução: Os receptores do peptídeo insulinotrópico dependente de glicose (GIPR) e do hormônio luteinizante (LHCGR) são receptores acoplados à proteína G com amplo padrão de expressão tecidual. A expressão anômala destes receptores tem sido descrita em casos de hiperplasia adrenal macronodular independente de ACTH (AIMAH) e em alguns adenomas, resultando em aumento da secreção hormonal (cortisol, andrógenos e aldosterona) pelo cortex adrenal. O papel destes receptores em outras formas de hiperplasia, como a doença adrenocortical nodular pigmentosa primária (PPNAD), aumento da adrenal associado à neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 1 (MEN1), e em carcinoma do córtex adrenal tem sido pouco investigado; sendo assim, considera-se relevante estudar a expressão destes receptores nos pacientes com tumores adrenocorticais esporádicos, nos pacientes com AIMAH, PPNAD e aumento adrenal associado à MEN1. Objetivos: 1) Caracterização molecular dos casos de neoplasia endócrina múltipla tipo 1 e PPNAD: pesquisa de mutações dos genes MEN1 e PRKAR1A e análise da perda de heterozigose (LOH) destes genes no tecido adrenal destes pacientes. 2) Quantificar a expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR em tecido adrenocortical normal, tumoral, hiperplásico e correlacionar a expressão destes com a classificação histológica dos tumores adrenocorticais. Pacientes: 55 pacientes (30 adultos) com tumores adrenocorticais (37 adenomas e 18 carcinomas); 7 pacientes com AIMAH, 4 com MEN1, 1 com PPNAD e tecidos controles (adrenal; testículo e pâncreas). Métodos: extração de DNA genômico, RNA e síntese de DNA complementar (cDNA); amplificação por PCR das regiões codificadoras dos genes MEN1 e PRKAR1A seguida por seqüenciamento automático. Pesquisa de LOH pela amplificação de microssatélites por PCR e análise pelo programa GeneScan. Quantificação da expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR por PCR em tempo real pelo método TaqMan e estudo de imunohistoquímica para GIPR nos tumores adrenocorticais. Resultados: identificação de 3 mutações (893+ 1G>A, W183X e A68fsX118) e dois polimorfirmos (S145S e D418D) no gene MEN1 e uma mutação (Y21X) no PRKAR1A. Ausência de LOH nos tecidos adrenais estudados. A expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR foi identificada em tecidos adrenais normais, tumorais e hiperplásicos. O nível de expressão do GIPR foi mais elevado nos tumores adrenocorticais malignos que nos benignos tanto no grupo pediátrico (mediana= 18,1 e 4,6, respectivamente; p <0,05), quanto no grupo adulto (mediana = 4,8 e 1,3 respectivamente; p <0,001). O nível de expressão do LHCGR, no grupo pediátrico, foi elevado tanto nos tumores benignos quanto nos malignos (mediana= 6,4 e 4,3, respectivamente). No grupo adulto os níveis de expressão deste receptor foram extremamente baixos nos tumores malignos em relação aos benignos (mediana= 0,06 e 2,3, respectivamente; p <0,001). A imunohistoquímica para o GIPR foi variável e não correlacionada à expressão do gene GIPR. Não houve diferença nos níveis de expressão do GIPR e do LHCGR nas hiperplasias do córtex adrenal. Conclusões: a presença de LOH e mutação em heterozigose composta do gene MEN1 e do PRKAR1A foram afastadas como mecanismos responsáveis pelo aumento adrenal tanto nos pacientes com MEN1 como no paciente com PPNAD. A hiperexpressão de GIPR está associada a malignidade nos tumores adrenocorticais nos grupos adulto e pediátrico e a baixa expressão de LHCGR está associada a malignidade nos tumores adrenocorticais somente no grupo adulto. / Introduction: The glucose- dependent insulinotropic peptide receptor (GIPR) and luteinizing hormone receptor (LHCGR) are G-protein coupled receptors with a wide tissue expression pattern. The aberrant expression of these receptors has been described in cases of ACTH-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (AIMAH) and in some adenomas, resulting in the increase of adrenal cortex hormonal secretion (cortisol, androgens and aldosterone). The role of these receptors in other forms of adrenocortical hyperplasia, such as primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD), adrenal enlargement associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1), and adrenocortical carcinoma has been scarcely investigated. Thus, the study of the expression of these receptors in patients with sporadical adrenocortical tumors, AIMAH, PPNAD and adrenal enlargement associated to MEN1 was considered important. Objectives: 1) Molecular study in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and PPNAD: mutation screening of MEN1 and PRKAR1A genes and analysis of the loss of heterozygosis (LOH) of these genes in the adrenal lesions of these patients. 2) To quantify the GIPR and LHCGR expression, in normal, tumor and hyperplasic tissue and to correlate the expression of these receptors with the adrenocortical tumor histology. Patients: 55 patients (30 adults) with adrenocortical tumors (37 adenomas and 18 carcinomas); 7 patients with AIMAH, 4 with MEN1, 1 with PPNAD and control tissue (adrenal, testis and pancreas). Methods: Extraction of genomic DNA, RNA and synthesis of complementary DNA (cDNA); PCR-amplification of the coding regions of MEN1 and PRKAR1A, followed by direct sequencing. LOH study using polymorphic marker amplification by PCR and GeneScan software analysis. Quantification of GIPR and LHCGR expression using realtime PCR -TaqMan method and GIPR immunohistochemistry study in adrenocortical tumors. Results: Identification of 3 mutations (893+ 1G>A, W183X and A68fsX118) and two polymorphic alterations (S145S and D418D) in MEN1 and a mutation (Y21X) in the PRKAR1A gene; LOH was not identified in adrenal tissue. The GIPR and LHCGR expression was identified in normal, tumor and hyperplasic adrenal tissues; the GIPR expression level was more elevated in malignant tumors compared to benign tumors in pediatric (median = 18.1 and 4.6, respectively; p <0.05) and adult patients (median = 4.8 and 1.3 respectively; p <0.001). The LHCGR expression in pediatric patients was elevated in benign as well as in malignant tumors (median = 6.4 and 4.3, respectively). In the adult group, the expression level of these receptors was extremely low in malignant tumors in relation to benign ones (median = 0.06 and 2.3, respectively; p <0.001). The GIPR immunohistochemistry was variable and did not correlate with GIPR gene expression. No difference between GIPR and LHCGR expression levels was observed in the different forms of hyperplasia. Conclusions: The presence of LOH and mutations in compound heterozygosis of MEN1 and PRKAR1A genes were ruled out as the mechanisms responsible for the adrenal enlargement in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. GIPR overexpression is associated with malignant adrenocortical tumors in the adult and pediatric patients and low LHCGR expression is associated with malignant adrenocortical tumors only in the adult patients.