Excitotoxicity is the overexcitation of neurons due to the excessive activation of excitatory amino acid receptors and is thought to be involved in many neurodegenerative states. The manner in which the neuron breaks down during excitotoxicity is still unclear. The current study used the organotypic hippocampal slice culture model to examine the time-dependent loss of the synaptic vesicular protein synaptophysin and the loss of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor NR1 subunit availability following an excitotoxic insult (20 μM NMDA) to provide a better understanding of the topographical nature of neuronal death following NMDA receptor activation. Significant NMDA-induced cytotoxicity in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (as measured by propidium iodide uptake) was evident early (15 minutes after exposure) while significant loss of the NR1 subunit and synaptophysin was found at later timepoints (72 and 24 hours, respectively), suggesting delayed downregulation or degradation in axons and dendrites as compared to the soma. The addition of the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist 2-amino-7-phosphonovaleric acid (APV) significantly attenuated all NMDA-induced effects. These results suggest that NR1 and synaptophysin levels as measured by immunoreactivity are not reliable indicators of early cell death.

No description available.

We have previously devised a semiquantitative grading system for hippocampal sclerosis (HS) in specimens resected for intractable temporal lobe epilepsy. The grades range from zero to four based on the amount and distribution of neuronal loss and gliosis. In the present study hippocampal sections from 25 patients who had temporal lobe epilepsy and had previously been assigned a grade were examined with synaptophysin immunohistochemistry, and the synaptic content in specific hippocampal fields was correlated with the results of the HS grading system. There was evidence of both significant synaptic loss and increased synaptic density in different fields of the hippocampus with increasing HS. A marked decrement of synaptic immunostaining was present in fields CA1 and CA4 that were highly correlated with HS grade. Sector CA4 seemed to respond in a more graded or continuous way to the pathological insults occurring in temporal lobe epilepsy than did CA1, which appeared to exhibit an all or nothing response. Also, while the width of the outer part of the molecular layer of the dentate (mld) gyrus decreased with increasing HS grade, the inner part of the mld became wider and showed an increased synaptic density so that the overall width of the mld was increased in the high-grade group. We conclude that quantitative measurement of synaptic loss in CA1 and CA4 using synaptophysin immunohistochemistry is a sensitive method for detecting HS and correlates well with the empirically derived HS grading scale, with CA4 exhibiting a more graded response than CA1. In addition, a plasticity response in the inner part of the mld in patients with high-grade HS has been confirmed and quantitated.

No description available.

<p>Our knowledge of the fine structure of the Human Spiral Ganglion (HSG) is still inadequate and new treatment techniques for deafness using electric stimulation, call for further information and studies on the neuronal elements of the human cochlea. This thesis presents results of analyses of human cochlear tissue and specimens obtained during neurosurgical transpetrosal removal of life-threatening meningeomas. The use of surgical biopsies produced a well-preserved material suitable for ultrastructural and immunohistochemical studies on the human inner ear. The SG was studied with respect to fine structure, using TEM technique and the immunostaining pattern of synaptophysin, which is an integral membrane protein of neuronal synaptic vesicles. The immunostaining patterns of the tight junctional protein ZO-1 and the gap junctional proteins Cx26 and Cx43 in the human cochlea were also studied. The ultrastructural morphology revealed an absence of myelination pattern in the HSG, thus differing from that in other species. Furthermore, formation of structural units as well as signs of neural interaction between the type 1 neurons could be observed. Type 1 cells were tightly packed in clusters, sharing the ensheathment of Schwann cells. The cells frequently made direct physical contact in Schwann cell gaps in which membrane specializations appeared. These specializations consisted of symmetrically or asymmetrically distributed filamentous densities along the apposed cell membranes. The same structures were also present between individual unmyelinated nerve fibres and the type 1 cells. Synapses were observed on the type 2 neurons, with nerve fibres originating from the intraganglionic spiral bundle. Such synapses, though rare, were also observed on the type 1 cells. The ultrastructural findings were confirmed by the synaptophysin study. A 3-D model of a Schwann cell gap between two type 1 cells was constructed, describing the distribution pattern of membrane specializations. In the immunohistochemical studies on the human cochlea, ZO-1 was expressed in tissues lining scala media, thus contributing to the formation of a closed compartment system, important for the maintenance of the specific ionic composition of the endolymph. Protein Cx26 could be identified in non-sensory epithelial cells of the organ of Corti, in connective tissue cells of the spiral ligament and spiral limbus, as well as in the basal and intermediate cell layers of stria vascularis. Cx26 in this region may be involved in the recycling of potassium. Protein Cx43 stained weakly in the spiral ligament, but intense staining in the SG may indicate that gap junctions exist between these neurons. A different functional role for the HSG can be assumed from the morphological characteristics and the signs of a neural interaction between the SG cells. This might be relevant for neural processing mechanisms in speech coding and could have implications for cochlear implant techniques.</p>

Our knowledge of the fine structure of the Human Spiral Ganglion (HSG) is still inadequate and new treatment techniques for deafness using electric stimulation, call for further information and studies on the neuronal elements of the human cochlea. This thesis presents results of analyses of human cochlear tissue and specimens obtained during neurosurgical transpetrosal removal of life-threatening meningeomas. The use of surgical biopsies produced a well-preserved material suitable for ultrastructural and immunohistochemical studies on the human inner ear. The SG was studied with respect to fine structure, using TEM technique and the immunostaining pattern of synaptophysin, which is an integral membrane protein of neuronal synaptic vesicles. The immunostaining patterns of the tight junctional protein ZO-1 and the gap junctional proteins Cx26 and Cx43 in the human cochlea were also studied. The ultrastructural morphology revealed an absence of myelination pattern in the HSG, thus differing from that in other species. Furthermore, formation of structural units as well as signs of neural interaction between the type 1 neurons could be observed. Type 1 cells were tightly packed in clusters, sharing the ensheathment of Schwann cells. The cells frequently made direct physical contact in Schwann cell gaps in which membrane specializations appeared. These specializations consisted of symmetrically or asymmetrically distributed filamentous densities along the apposed cell membranes. The same structures were also present between individual unmyelinated nerve fibres and the type 1 cells. Synapses were observed on the type 2 neurons, with nerve fibres originating from the intraganglionic spiral bundle. Such synapses, though rare, were also observed on the type 1 cells. The ultrastructural findings were confirmed by the synaptophysin study. A 3-D model of a Schwann cell gap between two type 1 cells was constructed, describing the distribution pattern of membrane specializations. In the immunohistochemical studies on the human cochlea, ZO-1 was expressed in tissues lining scala media, thus contributing to the formation of a closed compartment system, important for the maintenance of the specific ionic composition of the endolymph. Protein Cx26 could be identified in non-sensory epithelial cells of the organ of Corti, in connective tissue cells of the spiral ligament and spiral limbus, as well as in the basal and intermediate cell layers of stria vascularis. Cx26 in this region may be involved in the recycling of potassium. Protein Cx43 stained weakly in the spiral ligament, but intense staining in the SG may indicate that gap junctions exist between these neurons. A different functional role for the HSG can be assumed from the morphological characteristics and the signs of a neural interaction between the SG cells. This might be relevant for neural processing mechanisms in speech coding and could have implications for cochlear implant techniques.

Acquiring knowledge of the morphological, molecular, and functional changes that occur to neurons following axotomy is a key step for a comprehensive understanding of the nervous system and how it reacts to injury. Propriospinal commissural interneurons (PCIs or CINs) are a class of neuron with axons that project through the ventral commissure to the contralateral spinal cord. My goal was to examine the morphological, molecular, and functional changes that occur to adult feline PCIs following a proximal axotomy. We first determined whether proximally axotomized PCIs develop de novo axons from their dendrites. C3 PCIs were proximally axotomized and several weeks later we stained PCIs and prepared the tissue for histological evaluation. Two primary classes of axotomized PCI were identified: those with a very short axon (called permanently axotomized) and those with an axon that projected across the injury site. Permanently axotomized PCIs had processes with morphological features typical of axons that emerged from their distal dendrites. These axonal processes of the distal dendrites also had GAP-43 (an axonal marker) and lacked MAP2a/b (a dendritic marker). We concluded that permanently axotomized PCIs develop de novo axons from distal dendrites. We then determined whether the axons that crossed the lesion site were representative of spontaneous functional regeneration. First, we showed that PCI axons regenerate through an environment that is typically highly inhibitory to regenerating axons. Second, we established that the regenerated axons conduct action potentials. Finally, we found that regenerated PCI axons form functional synaptic connections with neurons in the contralateral spinal cord. Collectively, these data indicated that spinal interneurons are capable of spontaneous functional regeneration through an injured spinal cord. PCI growth cones are complex and unlike growth cones previously described in the literature. The final study of the thesis examines the morphologies of PCI growth cones within spinal cord injury sites. We found that PCI growth cones have a wide range of morphologies that is independent of their location within the lesion site. Taken together, these data indicate that PCIs have a remarkable capacity for axonal elongation and contribute to remodelling of spinal circuitry following spinal injury. / Thesis (Ph.D, Physiology) -- Queen's University, 2009-12-07 11:21:47.036

No description available.

O diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DMT1) tem sido associado com complicações a longo prazo no sistema nervoso central, além dos efeitos periféricos comuns relacionados à doença, causando disfunções cognitivas no encéfalo. Por outro lado, o enriquecimento ambiental (EA) induz mecanismos de plasticidade dependentes da experiência, especialmente no hipocampo, melhorando o desempenho dos animais em testes de aprendizado e memória. Assim, nosso objetivo foi avaliar a influência do EA sobre o déficit de memória, a atividade locomotora, os níveis de corticosterona, a imunorreatividade da proteína sinaptofisina, e a densidade e a ativação de astrócitos e microglia no giro denteado (GD) do hipocampo de ratos diabéticos tipo 1. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos com 21 dias de idade, foram expostos ao EA ou mantidos em caixamoradia padrão (controles, C) por 3 meses. Quando adultos, os animais tanto C quanto EA foram randomicamente divididos e induziu-se diabetes através de injeção de estreptozotocina em metade dos animais de cada grupo, sendo mantidas as respectivas condições ambientais para cada um dos grupos. A memória espacial dependente de hipocampo foi avaliada em todos os grupos através do teste de reconhecimento de objeto reposicionado, no 41o dia após a indução do diabetes, bem como a locomoção geral dos animais no campo aberto durante o mesmo teste. Os níveis séricos de corticosterona foram medidos ao final do experimento, a imunorreatividade da sinaptofisina foi avaliada por imunoistoquímica, e a densidade e a ativação de astrócitos e da microglia por imunofluorescência no hilo do GD do hipocampo. Nossos resultados mostraram que o EA foi capaz de prevenir ou atrasar o desenvolvimento do déficit de memória causado pelo diabetes em ratos, porém não reverteu o déficit motor observado nos animais diabéticos. Não houve diferença significativa na imunorreatividade da sinaptofisina entre os grupos. Além disso, embora o EA não tenha modificado a densidade e a ativação dos astrócitos nos animais diabéticos, o enriquecimento atenuou os efeitos prejudiciais da hiperglicemia sobre a ativação microglial, bem como reduziu os níveis séricos de corticosterona nos ratos diabéticos adultos. Assim, o EA ajudou a amenizar as comorbidades cognitivas associadas ao diabetes, possivelmente por atenuar a hiperatividade do eixo HPA e a ativação microglial nos animais diabéticos. / Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has been associated with long-term complications in central nervous system, besides peripheral common adverse effects, causing neurocognitive dysfunction in the brain. On the other hand, enriched environment (EE) induces mechanisms of experiencedependent plasticity especially in hippocampus, improving the performance of animals in learning and memory tasks. Thus, our objective was to investigate the influence of the EE on memory deficits, locomotion, corticosterone levels, synaptophysin protein immunoreactivity, and density and activation of astrocytes and microglia in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) of type 1 diabetic rats. For this, male Wistar rats, 21 days old, were exposed to the EE or maintained in standard housing (controls, C) for 3 months. At adulthood, C and EE animals were randomly divided and half of them induced to diabetes by streptozotocin, being maintained the respective environmental conditions for each animal groups. Hippocampus-dependent spatial memory was evaluated in all groups in the novel object-placement recognition task, on 41th day after diabetes induction, as well as the general locomotion in the open field at the same test. Serum corticosterone levels were measured in the end of the experiment, contents of synaptophysin was evaluated by immunohistochemistry, and density and activation of both astrocytes and microglia by immunofluorescence in the hilus of the DG in hippocampus. Our results showed that EE was able to prevent or delay the development of memory deficits caused by diabetes in rats, however did not revert the motor impairment observed in group diabetic. There was no significant difference in synaptophysin immunoreactivity among the groups. Furthermore, although the EE did not modify the density and activation of astrocytes in diabetic animals, it attenuated the injurious effect of hyperglycemia over microglial activation, as well as decreased the serum level of corticosterone in diabetic adult rats. Thus, the EE has helped to ameliorate cognitive comorbidities associated with T1DM, possibly by reducing the hyperactivity of HPA axis and the microglial activation in diabetic animals.

O diabetes mellitus tipo 1 (DMT1) tem sido associado com complicações a longo prazo no sistema nervoso central, além dos efeitos periféricos comuns relacionados à doença, causando disfunções cognitivas no encéfalo. Por outro lado, o enriquecimento ambiental (EA) induz mecanismos de plasticidade dependentes da experiência, especialmente no hipocampo, melhorando o desempenho dos animais em testes de aprendizado e memória. Assim, nosso objetivo foi avaliar a influência do EA sobre o déficit de memória, a atividade locomotora, os níveis de corticosterona, a imunorreatividade da proteína sinaptofisina, e a densidade e a ativação de astrócitos e microglia no giro denteado (GD) do hipocampo de ratos diabéticos tipo 1. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos com 21 dias de idade, foram expostos ao EA ou mantidos em caixamoradia padrão (controles, C) por 3 meses. Quando adultos, os animais tanto C quanto EA foram randomicamente divididos e induziu-se diabetes através de injeção de estreptozotocina em metade dos animais de cada grupo, sendo mantidas as respectivas condições ambientais para cada um dos grupos. A memória espacial dependente de hipocampo foi avaliada em todos os grupos através do teste de reconhecimento de objeto reposicionado, no 41o dia após a indução do diabetes, bem como a locomoção geral dos animais no campo aberto durante o mesmo teste. Os níveis séricos de corticosterona foram medidos ao final do experimento, a imunorreatividade da sinaptofisina foi avaliada por imunoistoquímica, e a densidade e a ativação de astrócitos e da microglia por imunofluorescência no hilo do GD do hipocampo. Nossos resultados mostraram que o EA foi capaz de prevenir ou atrasar o desenvolvimento do déficit de memória causado pelo diabetes em ratos, porém não reverteu o déficit motor observado nos animais diabéticos. Não houve diferença significativa na imunorreatividade da sinaptofisina entre os grupos. Além disso, embora o EA não tenha modificado a densidade e a ativação dos astrócitos nos animais diabéticos, o enriquecimento atenuou os efeitos prejudiciais da hiperglicemia sobre a ativação microglial, bem como reduziu os níveis séricos de corticosterona nos ratos diabéticos adultos. Assim, o EA ajudou a amenizar as comorbidades cognitivas associadas ao diabetes, possivelmente por atenuar a hiperatividade do eixo HPA e a ativação microglial nos animais diabéticos. / Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has been associated with long-term complications in central nervous system, besides peripheral common adverse effects, causing neurocognitive dysfunction in the brain. On the other hand, enriched environment (EE) induces mechanisms of experiencedependent plasticity especially in hippocampus, improving the performance of animals in learning and memory tasks. Thus, our objective was to investigate the influence of the EE on memory deficits, locomotion, corticosterone levels, synaptophysin protein immunoreactivity, and density and activation of astrocytes and microglia in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) of type 1 diabetic rats. For this, male Wistar rats, 21 days old, were exposed to the EE or maintained in standard housing (controls, C) for 3 months. At adulthood, C and EE animals were randomly divided and half of them induced to diabetes by streptozotocin, being maintained the respective environmental conditions for each animal groups. Hippocampus-dependent spatial memory was evaluated in all groups in the novel object-placement recognition task, on 41th day after diabetes induction, as well as the general locomotion in the open field at the same test. Serum corticosterone levels were measured in the end of the experiment, contents of synaptophysin was evaluated by immunohistochemistry, and density and activation of both astrocytes and microglia by immunofluorescence in the hilus of the DG in hippocampus. Our results showed that EE was able to prevent or delay the development of memory deficits caused by diabetes in rats, however did not revert the motor impairment observed in group diabetic. There was no significant difference in synaptophysin immunoreactivity among the groups. Furthermore, although the EE did not modify the density and activation of astrocytes in diabetic animals, it attenuated the injurious effect of hyperglycemia over microglial activation, as well as decreased the serum level of corticosterone in diabetic adult rats. Thus, the EE has helped to ameliorate cognitive comorbidities associated with T1DM, possibly by reducing the hyperactivity of HPA axis and the microglial activation in diabetic animals.