Languages are culturally transmitted through a repeated cycle of learning and communicative interaction. These two aspects of cultural transmission impose (at least) three interacting pressures that can shape the evolution of linguistic structure: a pressure for learnability, a pressure for expressivity, and a pressure for coordination amongst users in a linguistic community. This thesis considers how these sometimes competing pressures impact linguistic complexity across cultural time. Using artificial language and iterated learning experimental paradigms, I investigate the conditions under which complexity in morphological and syntactic systems emerges, spreads, and reduces. These experiments illustrate the interaction of transmission, learning and use in hitherto understudied domains - morphosyntax and word order. In a first study (Chapter 2), I report the first iterated learning experiments to investigate the evolution of complexity in compositional structure at the word and sentence level. I demonstrate that a complex meaning space paired with pressures for learnability and communication can result in compositional hierarchical constituent structure, including fixed combinatorial rules of word formation and word order. This structure grants a productive and productively interpretable language and only requires learners to acquire a finite lexicon and a finite set of combinatorial rules (i.e., a grammar). In Chapter 3, I address the unique effect of communicative interaction on linguistic complexity, by removing language learning completely. Speakers use their native language to express novel meanings either in isolation or during communicative interaction. I demonstrate that even in this case, communicative interaction leads to more efficient and overall simpler linguistic systems. These first two studies provide support for the claim that morphological and syntactic complexity are shaped by an overarching drive towards simplicity (or learnability) in language learning and communication. Chapter 4 reports a series of experiments assessing the possibility that the simplicity bias found in the first two studies operates at a different strength depending on the linguistic level. Studies in natural language learning and in pidgin/creole genesis suggest that while morphological variation seems to be highly susceptible to regularisation, variation in other syntactic features, like word order, appears more likely to be reproduced. I test this experimentally by comparing regularisation of unconditioned variation across morphology and word order in the context of artificial language learning. I show that language users in fact regularise unconditioned variation in a similar way across linguistic levels, suggesting that the simplicity bias may be driven by a single, non-level-specific mechanism. Taken together, the experimental evidence presented in this thesis supports the hypothesis that the cultural and cognitive pressures acting on language users during learning and communicative interaction - for learnability, expressivity and coordination - are at least partially responsible for the evolution of linguistic complexity. Specifically, they are responsible for the emergence of linguistic complexity which maximises learnability and communicative efficiency, and for the reduction of complexity which does not. More generally, the approach taken in this thesis promotes a view of complexity in linguistic systems as an evolving variable determined by the biases of language learners and users as languages are culturally transmitted.

A copresença corresponde ao conjunto de pessoas que compartilham um espaço comum - não necessariamente interagindo entre si - e o seu estudo procura entender como o espaço que as permeia interfere na maneira como elas se movem, param, encontram outras pessoas e tem seu comportamento regulado pela presença de outros. O objetivo geral desta pesquisa foi, portanto, explicar os padrões da copresença em ruas a partir de seus atributos espaciais, buscando, especificamente, identificá-los e hierarquizá-los. Para isso, o fenômeno foi abordado a partir da análise dos padrões espaciais estabelecidos em segmentos de rua de loteamentos residenciais dispersos de cidades médias brasileiras, fazendo uso da análise configuracional da forma urbana – especificamente sintaxe espacial – e das diferenciações espaciais promovidas pelas atividades urbanas e pela permeabilidade física e visual entre espaços públicos e privados. Tinha-se como questão de pesquisa: quais as características espaciais influentes para a copresença em espaços públicos de loteamentos residenciais dispersos? A hipótese era que a copresença, nesse contexto sócio-espacial, seria influenciada, sobretudo, pelos atributos morfológicos configuracionais, os quais informam os potenciais de encontro social no sistema espacial da cidade Foram analisados dois loteamentos residenciais dispersos na cidade de Santa Maria (RS), com características espaciais diferenciadas e padrões de copresença próprios. A metodologia utilizada teve enfoque quantitativo, sendo utilizados modelos de regressão linear generalizados (MLGs) para inferência das relações entre as variáveis independentes e cada variável dependente, no caso, a copresença categorizada em pedestres parados e em movimento, em dias típicos (terças, quartas e quintasfeiras) e atípicos (domingos). Os atributos morfológicos configuracionais tiveram significância estatística para quase todos os modelos de regressão, validando a hipótese para o loteamento 1. No loteamento 2, a copresença foi melhor explicada pelas atividades urbanas. Os resultados referentes à permeabilidade física e visual mostraram-se inconclusivos em ambas as áreas de estudo. / Co-presence corresponds to the group of people who share a common space - not necessarily interacting with each other - and its study aims to understand how the space that permeates them interferes in the way they move, stop, find other people and have their behavior regulated by the presence of others. The main objective of this research was therefore to explain the patterns of copresence in streets from their spatial attributes, specifically seeking to identify them and to hierarchize them. The approach of the phenomenon was quantitative and based on the analysis of spatial patterns established in street segments of dispersed residential neighborhoods of Brazilian medium-sized cities, making use of configurational analysis of urban form - specifically space syntax - and spatial differentiation generated by urban activities and by physical and visual permeability between public and private spaces. The research question was: which spatial characteristics influence co-presence in public spaces of dispersed residential neighborhoods? The hypothesis was that co-presence would be influenced mainly by the configurational morphological attributes, which inform the potential of social encounter in the city's spatial system Two dispersed residential neighborhoods with different spatial characteristics and unique co-presence patterns were analyzed in Santa Maria city (RS). The methodology used generalized linear models (GLMs) to infer relations between the independent variables and each dependent variable: in this case, the co-presence categories of stationary and moving pedestrians on typical days (Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays) and atypical days (Sundays). The configurational morphological attributes had statistical significance for almost all regression models, validating the hypothesis for neighborhood 1. In neighborhood 2, co-presence was mainly explained by urban activities. The results regarding physical and visual permeability were inconclusive for both study areas.

This dissertation is an extended argument for the syntactic structure proposed in (1), referred to as the 'VICTR Hierarchy' after the initials of the five functional heads it comprises: (1) [VolitionP Volition [InitiationP Initiation [ConsecutionP Consecution [TransitionP Transition [ResultP Result [VP ] ] ] ] ] ] The VICTR Hierarchy is a hierarchy of functional heads corresponding to the part of the clause generally known in the minimalist literature as `vP' or the `thematic domain'. Nominal arguments are merged in the specifiers of one or more of these heads and receive their thematic interpretations on the basis of their merged positions. Evidence for a model of thematic roles and syntactic argument structure based in the VICTR Hierarchy is presented for a range of domains, with a focus on 'split intransitivity'. Split intransitivity is explored initially in regard to English, with close consideration of a range of split intransitive diagnostics (e.g. 'out'-prefixation, the resultative construction); a VICTR account of these patterns is presented. A VICTR account of auxiliary selection patterns in Western European languages is also given. This is followed by analysis of split intransitive case and agreement systems. A formal account of the case and agreement patterns in these languages based in the VICTR hierarchy is presented, derived in part from the inherent case theory of ergativity (Legate 2002, Aldridge 2004 and others) and drawing on a detailed typology. The dissertation then proceeds to detailed analysis of the semantic basis of split intransitive alignment in two languages, Basque and Georgian. Other split intransitive behaviours in these languages are also considered in VICTR terms. Throughout, the VICTR approach is compared to other approaches to split intransitivity following Perlmutter's (1978) Unaccusative Hypothesis. The VICTR Hierarchy is also compared to the similar proposal of Ramchand (2008). It is argued that the VICTR Hierarchy accounts more readily than these other approaches for the particular classes of verbs identified by split intransitivity diagnostics in the languages considered, and also for cross-linguistic variation in split intransitive behaviours. Much support, with some caveats, is also found in the data considered for the applicability of Sorace's (2000) Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy (ASH) to a range of split intransitive phenomena cross-linguistically. Together with acquisitional considerations, the VICTR features are argued to allow for a formalisation of the patterns described by the ASH.

Resumption has been the object of lively research (Doron 1982; Sells 1984; McClauskey 1990; 2002; Shlonsky 1992; Cann 1999; Sharvit 1999; Alexopoulou 2006; Guilliot 2006; Malkawi 2009; Rouveret 2011) and various analyses consider it a form of agreement, a last syntactic resort or a special kind of ellipsis. On the theoretical side, I survey the issues that are the background of the research, such as the nature of the pronouns that are involved in resumption. I develop a syntactic analysis of resumptive pronouns in which they are clitics (Cardinaletti and Starke 1999; Dechaine and Wiltschko 2002; Roberts 2010) and they form a complex determiner phrase together with the relative pronoun or interrogative pronoun. I argue that when resumption is obligatory, it follows from requirements in the syntax and only when it is optional it is a phenomenon at the syntax-pragmatics interface. On the empirical side, I contrast and compare the pronominal paradigms of Arabic and Romanian, an Eastern Romance language which strikingly shows a similar pattern of resumption as Arabic: (i) obligatory resumption in relativization, (ii) designated relative pronoun. Though for Romanian nobody has disputed the nature of the clitic pronouns as clitic in the sense that I am adopting (Cardinaletti and Starke 1999), it has not been thoroughly documented either. I then discuss the pragmatics of resumption in contexts in which it is optional, such as D-linked questions in Arabic. The difference between obligatory resumption and optional resumption is not found in the syntax, because this same syntactic derivation is associated with different interpretive effects depending on whether it occurs in obligatory or in optional contexts. I argue that the presence of the pronoun when it is not required by the syntax triggers a change in interpretation: the module pragmatics assigns it a pragmatic feature.

This thesis describes and analyses patterns of complementation and auxiliation in the languages spoken in an understudied area of Italy, namely Southern Lazio. From a descriptive perspective, this thesis serves to document several severely endangered Romance languages spoken in the Italian peninsula. In so doing, several previously undocumented complementizer and auxiliary systems are illustrated for the first time. From a theoretical perspective, this thesis accounts for the patterns of variation found in these auxiliary and complementizer systems. Traditional descriptions of Italo- Romance treat these systems as entirely unrelated. Indeed, to date, no previous study has compared the distribution of complementizers and auxiliaries in Italo-Romance to investigate similarities and correspondences between them. This dissertation takes the original step of demonstrating that the distribution of particular auxiliary systems correlates with the distribution of particular complementizer systems, offering, in turn, an integrated and complementary theoretical analysis of both phenomena.

He, Jia. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references (p. [150-154] ). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements --- p.i / Abstract --- p.iii / 摘要 --- p.iv / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- INTRODUCTION --- p.5 / Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2 --- Classifiers in natural languages --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Classifier systems in spoken languages --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Classifiers in signed languages --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3 --- Instruments in spoken languages --- p.13 / Chapter 1.4 --- Objectives of the study --- p.18 / Chapter 1.5 --- Research questions --- p.19 / Chapter 1.6 --- Organization of the thesis --- p.20 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- CLASSIFIERS IN SIGNED LANGUAGES --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2 --- Classifier predicates in signed languages --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Classification of classifier handshape unit in classifier predicates --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Classification of movement unit in classifier predicates --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3 --- Previous formal analyses on classifier predicates in signed languages --- p.28 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Meir's (2001) noun incorporation analysis in Israel Sign Language --- p.28 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Zwitserlood's (2003) analysis of verbs of motion and location in NGT --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Benedicto and Brentari's (2004) syntactic analysis of classifier predicates in ASL --- p.31 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Some previous attempts to analyze classifier predicates in HKSL --- p.33 / Chapter 2.4 --- Interim discussion and conclusion --- p.36 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY --- p.37 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.37 / Chapter 3.2 --- Background of Tianjin Sign Language --- p.37 / Chapter 3.3 --- Data collection --- p.38 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Consultants --- p.38 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Elicitation materials --- p.39 / Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- "Movies: ""Tweety and Sylvester""" --- p.39 / Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- Picture stories --- p.40 / Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- Simple picture descriptions --- p.41 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Elicitation tasks and procedures --- p.46 / Chapter 3.3.4 --- Transcription method --- p.47 / Chapter 3.4 --- Interim discussion and conclusion --- p.47 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- RESULTS AND DATA DESCRIPTION --- p.48 / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.48 / Chapter 4.2 --- Inventory of handshapes for instrument classifier predicates --- p.48 / Chapter 4.3 --- Classifier handshape and predicate types --- p.66 / Chapter 4.4 --- Interim discussion and conclusion --- p.68 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS --- p.69 / Chapter 5.1 --- Distributed Morphology --- p.69 / Chapter 5.1.1 --- An overview of Distributed Morphology --- p.69 / Chapter 5.1.2 --- The concept of morpheme in DM --- p.73 / Chapter 5.1.3 --- Cyclic domain in DM --- p.73 / Chapter 5.1.4 --- Why reject Lexicalism? --- p.74 / Chapter 5.1.5 --- Interim discussion and conclusion --- p.77 / Chapter 5.2 --- Capturing 3-place predicates in syntax --- p.79 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Larson's VP-shell analysis (1988) --- p.79 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- "Pylkannen's analysis (2002, 2008)" --- p.83 / Chapter 5.2.2.1 --- Introduction of non-core arguments --- p.83 / Chapter 5.2.2.2 --- Applicatives in natural languages --- p.84 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Interim Discussion and conclusion --- p.87 / Chapter CHAPTER SIX --- FORMAL ANALYSIS OF INSTRUMENT CLASSIFIER PREDICATES IN TJSL --- p.89 / Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.89 / Chapter 6.2 --- Morphosyntactic properties of instrument classifier predicates in TJSL --- p.89 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Two types of three-place classifier predicates in TJSL --- p.89 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Handling classifier handshape and agentivity --- p.93 / Chapter 6.2.3 --- Signer's body encodes agentivity --- p.96 / Chapter 6.2.3.1 --- Grammatical function of the signer's body --- p.97 / Chapter 6.2.3.2 --- Test for argument status of signer's body --- p.100 / Chapter 6.2.4 --- Classifier handshape and noun class system --- p.107 / Chapter 6.2.4.1 --- Classifier handshape and gender system --- p.109 / Chapter 6.2.4.2 --- Instrument classifier handshapes: unifying gender system and noun classes --- p.110 / Chapter 6.2.4.2.1 --- Variation in the choice of classifier handshape in instrument classifier predicates in TJSL --- p.110 / Chapter 6.2.4.2.2 --- Classifier handshape and ^-feature specification --- p.113 / Chapter 6.2.4.2.3 --- Locationalization of classifier handshapes in space --- p.118 / Chapter 6.3 --- Structural representation of instrument classifier predicates --- p.120 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Voice0 and volitional external argument in instrument classifier predicates --- p.120 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Instrument as high applicative --- p.121 / Chapter 6.3.3 --- How instrument classifier predicates are derived in TJSL? --- p.125 / Chapter 6.4 --- Interim discussion and conclusion --- p.138 / Chapter CHAPTER SEVEN --- CONCLUSIONS --- p.139 / Chapter 7.1 --- Summery --- p.139 / Chapter 7.2 --- Theoretical implications --- p.140 / List of tables / Appendix I / Appendix II / References

本文重點在於提出框式結構理論的增補原則，指出語義「冗餘」性體現在語義內涵的大小差異，針對同一對象的兩個成份，較具體成份層級高於較抽象成份，這稱為框式結構的「『冗餘』成份假設」。在粤語實際情況中，後置成份是較抽象成份，有較寬廣的語義指稱，前置成份是較具體成份，指稱比較直接。 語例方面，後置的「嚟、住、咋、啫、咁滯」比對應的前置成份更抽象。「嚟」表示過去時，對應的「正話、啱啱」表示一個過去時間點；「住」表示靜態的時間間隔，「暫時」是提供靜態間隔的時段；「咋 、啫 」表示各種限制，「淨係」表示指義限制，「咁滯」約量動態、靜態謂語的狀態，「差唔多」約量動態謂語的達成階段。本文認為以上假設的句法意義在於前置成份層級高於後置成份，前後置成份不一定組成一個狹義的短語，但在展現局部性的孤島內，兩者保持固定層階關係。較具體成份的指稱未定，較抽象成份指稱也不能定下來，這是兩者層階固定的原因。前後置成份的內涵差異跟兩者句法性質有關，前置成份是修飾語。根據傳統方案，後置成份是功能詞短語的中心語，是表示關係的成份 ，而根據最新理論，後置成份是廣義的謂語。按照新近的方案，粤語後置成份的大量出現有其類型學依據，反映更廣泛的語際差異。前後置成份的語義差異，可視為修飾語與中心語或謂語的差異所致。本文最終目標是指出互補作用是上述關係的必然結果，後置成份補充前置成份沒有的語義，前置成份使後置成份未明確的指稱明確化，如「正話、暫時」指出後置成份的時間，「齋、淨係、差唔多」指出後置成份的焦點。粤語前後置成份的共現讓互補作用減少聽話者從語言外推斷語義的需要。從信息角度看，框式結構減輕了理解的負擔。 / The major focus of this thesis is to offer supplementary principles for the theory of discontinuous constructions. It indicates that semantic "redundancy" is embodied in the intensional variation. For the two elements acting upon the same target, the more specific one is at a higher hierarchy level than the more abstract one. This is known as the "Hypothesis for 'Redundant' Elements" with regard to the theory of discontinuous constructions. In the case of Cantonese, the postverbal elements are more abstract and have a wider scope of reference, whereas the preverbal elements are more specific and their reference is more direct. For example, postverbal lai4, zyu6, zaa3, ze1 and gam3zai6 are more abstract than their preverbal counterparts: lai4 indicates the past time, and the corresponding zing3waa6 and ngaam1ngaam1 indicate a past time point; zyu6 indicates a stative time interval, and zaam6si4 offers a duration for this stative interval; zaa3 and ze1 are restrictive in various dimensions, and zing6hai6 indicates restriction in the denotative sense; gam3zai6 approximates on the state of dynamic and stative predicates, and caa1m4do1 approximates on the stage of achievement of dynamic predicates. As for the syntactic implications, it is argued that the preverbal elements are hierarchically higher than the postverbal elements, but they do not necessarily form a phrase in the strict sense. However, within an island exhibiting locality, they have a fixed hierarchical relation. This is because the reference of the more abstract element cannot be determined before the reference of the more specific one is determined. Intensional variation between the preverbal and postverbal elements relates to their syntactic nature. The preverbal element is an adjunct. In accordance with traditional accounts, the postverbal element is the head of a functional phrase indicating relations. In line with the recent theories, the postverbal element is a predicate in the broad sense. The recent proposals explain from the typological perspective the emergence of extensive postverbal elements in Cantonese, which is a reflection of the broader cross-linguistic variation. Semantic differences between preverbal and postverbal elements can be translated as the differences between adjuncts and heads or predicates. The ultimate goal of this thesis is to highlight the certainty of the resulting complementation effect. The postverbal elements offer the missing sense for the preverbal ones, and the preverbal elements specify the underspecified reference of the postverbal ones: zing3waa6 and zaam6si4 indicate the time, whereas zaai1, zing6hai6 and caa1m4do1 indicate the focus. The co-occurrence of Cantonese preverbal and postverbal elements alleviates the necessity for the listeners to infer from outside the language. From the informational point of view, the discontinuous constructions reduce the burden of interpretation. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 鄭兆邦. / Parallel title from added title page. / Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2015. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 327-346). / Abstracts also in English. / Zheng Zhaobang.

Le contexte algérien est fait de plusieurs langues en contact, dont les interactions varient suivant les situations géographiques, socio-culturelles et socio-économiques observées. Leur coexistence/leur concurrence créent des situations d’enseignement/apprentissage complexes et particulières, dont l’étude précise est nécessaire pour que l’école algérienne puisse tirer parti de la richesse du plurilinguisme, car actuellement le plurilinguisme est la règle et le monolinguisme est l’exception. Cela dit, il est à noter que l’arabe standard moderne tout comme le français ne constituent nullement la langue maternelle du locuteur algérien même si l’on retrouve ces deux langues dans des domaines multiples et variés comme les média, l’administration, l’économie, les sciences…néanmoins un conflit existe et perdure, ce sont les parlers du quotidien, les idiomes locaux, régionaux qui dominent dans ce pays et qui influent sur ce processus d’enseignement/apprentissage des deux langues . / The algerian context is composed of several languages in contact, of which the interactions varie according to the geographical locations, sociocultural and socio-economic observed. Their coexistence/their competition create sophisticated and particular situations of teaching and learning. Their precises studies are necessary so that the algerian school takes advantage of the richness of the plurilingualism, because currently the plurilingualism is the rule and the monolingualism is the exception. However, it should be noted that neither modern standard arabic nor french constitute the mother tongue of any algerian speaker even if one finds these two languages in multiple and varied fields such as the media, the administration, the economy, sciences… nevertheless a conflict exists and continues : it is a matter of the daily speeches, the local and regional idioms which dominate in this country with their influence on the process of teaching and learning these two languages .

Esta dissertação faz um estudo do dativo de terceira pessoa no português culto falado em Belém. Os passos utilizados para se chegar a esse estudo foram dois: um levantamento criterioso da descrição do objeto indireto nas principais gramáticas de língua portuguesa e em vários estudos (artigos, dissertações, teses) com base em descrições lingüísticas. A literatura sobre a expressão do dativo na variedade brasileira do português, de modo geral, aponta importantes mudanças que vêm ocorrendo. Essas mudanças alteram a estrutura dativa prototípica (V+SN+aSP) e ocorrem em meio a diferentes estratégias: emprego da preposição para em lugar a; emprego das formas tônicas preposicionadas a/para ele(s) / a/para ela(s) na referência anafórica em lugar do clítico de terceira pessoa lhe; emprego do objeto indireto nulo; emprego de SNs plenos. A análise do corpus, coletado em entrevistas televisivas, revelou variações no emprego das construções dativas em Belém, porém essas variações não corroboram categoricamente as mudanças apontadas pelos estudos implementados em outras regiões. Tanto o lhe dativo quanto a preposição a são ainda recursos bastante utilizados nas construções dativas no belenense culto. / This dissertation makes a study analyzing the use of the third person dative in the formal Portuguese spoken in Belém. In order to arrive at this study, two steps were followed: a thorough survey of the descriptions of the indirect object found in the main grammars of Portuguese and in many other sorts of studies (such as: articles, dissertations and theses) based on linguistic analyses. The literature on the use of dative in the Brazilian Portuguese shows that significant changes in this usage are happening. These changes modify the prototypical dative structure (V + SN + aSP), and besides they occur in different contexts: the speaker uses the preposition \"para\" instead of using \"a\"; the usage of tonic prepositional forms \"a/para ele(s)\" / \"a/para ela(s)\" in anaphoric reference instead of the third person clitic \"lhe\"; the usage of null indirect object; the usage of full SNs. The analysis of the corpus collected in television interviews revealed variations in the usage of dative constructions in Belém, however these variations do not corroborate categorically to changes found by other studies in other regions of Brazil. Not only the dative pronoun \"lhe\", but also the preposition \"a\" are resources very used in dative constructions in the formal belenense.

Thesis (M.A. (African Languages)) --University of Limpopo, 2012 / Refer to the document