Les parasites Theileria (Theileria. annulata and T. parva) sont des protozoaires intracellulaires qui font partie du phylum des Apicomplexa. Theileria infecte les leucocytes bovins et les transforment en cellules cancéreuses, induisant un genre de leucémie chez le bovin et conduisant à la mort de l’animal. Les cellules infectées par Theileria démontrent certaines caractéristiques de cellules cancéreuses telles qu’une importante capacité d’invasion et de migration cellulaire. Cependant, le traitement de cellules infectées avec une drogue Theiléricide spécifique (buparvaquone) permet l'élimination du parasite et la réversion du phénotype transformé. De plus, la virulence peut être atténuée par passages répétés sur culture cellulaire. La similitude entre les cellules transformées par Theileria et la leucémie humaine fait de Theileria un modèle très important permettant l’étude des mécanismes cellulaires induits par le parasite au cours de la transformation de la cellule hôte. Mon laboratoire d’accueil a publié une augmentation significative de TGF-β2 dans les cellules virulentes et a constaté que parmi les 1158 cibles de TGF-β, 68 gènes ont été reconnus d'avoir modifié leurs niveaux de transcription concomitante avec l'atténuation. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons étudié les voies de signalisations impliquées dans la régulation de l’adhésion et l’invasion des cellules infectées par Theileria. Nous nous sommes particulièrement intéressés à l’étude de la voie de signalisation TGF-β2 et ses effecteurs. Nos résultats montrent que l’activation de la voie de signalisation de TGF-β2 par Theileria entraîne une augmentation de l’invasion et de l’adhérence des cellules transformées par deux mécanismes différents, soit en activant la voie de signalisation PGE2/EP4/cAMP/PKA/EPAC/CREB, soit en stimulant la voie GRB2/PI3-K/AP-1. Les macrophages atténués infectés par Theileria sont plus stressés oxydativement ce qui diminue leur adhérence et leur invasion cellulaire. Ceci nous a amené à étudier en collaboration avec un autre doctorant (Mehdi Metheni) le rôle de TGF-β2 dans la régulation du stress oxydatif dans les macrophages infectés par Theileria. Nos données montrent que les niveaux élevés de TGF-β2 stimule l’expression de la catalase, une enzyme anti-oxydante qui convertit le H2O2 en H2O et la baisse de H2O2 favorise la virulence en augmentant l’invasion et l’adhésion des cellules infectées par Theileria (résultats supplémentaires). De plus, nous avons examiné le statut de stress oxydatif et le type de glycolyse utilisé par les cellules infectées par Theileria. Les cellules transformées par Theileria agissent comme des cellules cancéreuses, elles consomment énormément de glucose. La protéine BAD joue un rôle important dans l’apoptose ainsi que dans la voie de glycolyse. Son activité est régulée par phosphorylation en réponse à des facteurs de croissance et de survie. BAD peut être phosphorylée par la PKA sur le résidu sérine 155. Durant ma thèse, nous avons examiné le rôle de la phosphorylation de BAD par la PKA dans la régulation du métabolisme cellulaire des macrophages infectés par Theileria. Nos résultats montrent que l’abolition de la phosphorylation de BAD par la PKA dissocie le complexe mitochondrial formé entre BAD et HK2, ce qui induit l’ubiquitynation et la dégradation de HK2 par le protéasome. La baisse de HK2 stimule la voie de phosphorylation oxydative en faveur de l’effet Warburg dans les cellules infectées par Theileria. / Theileria parasites (Theileria. annulata and T. parva) are intracellular protozoa and members of the phylum Apicomplexa. Theileria parasites are the only eukaryotes that possess the property of being able to transform another eukaryote, their leukocyte host cells. Transformed leukocytes show many characteristics of tumour cells such as heightened invasive capacity; however the tumour-like phenotype can be totally reversed upon drug induced parasite death and attenuated by multiple in vitro passages. Such multiple-passaged attenuated lines are used as live vaccines against tropical theileriosis. The similarities in tumour hyper-invasiveness between Theileria-transformed leukcocytes and human lymphomas imply that observations on Theileria-induced leukocyte transformation have the potential to give generally applicable insights into the mechanisms underpinning tumour virulence. My host laboratory described higher TGF-β2 levels in virulent infected macrophages and following microarray analysis of virulent compared to attenuated macrophages found that among the 1158 TGF-β-targets, 68 genes had altered transcript levels concomitant with attenuation. In this study, we investigate the signalling pathways involved in the regulation of cellular adhesion and invasiveness of Theileria-infected cells. We were especially interested in the study of TGF-β2 signalling in Theileria-transformed virulent versus attenuated macrophages. My results indicate that following Theileria infection of macrophages, the TGF-β2 signalling pathway is activated and induces an increase in adhesion of virulent transformed macrophages through two different mechanisms: either by activating a PGE2 / EP4 / cAMP / PKA / EPAC / CREB signaling pathway, or by stimulating a GRB2 / PI3-K / AP-1 pathway. As attenuated macrophages display heightened oxidative stress, which underpins their loss of adhesion and invasiveness, in collaboration with another PhD student (Mehdi Metheni) we investigated the role of TGF-β2 in the regulation of the oxidative stress status of Theileria-infected macrophages. Our data show that high levels of TGF-β2 increase the expression of catalase, an anti-oxidant enzyme that converts H2O2 into H2O and the drop in H2O2 output results in regain of the virulence trait heightened adhesion of Theileria-transformed macrophages to fibronectin. Theileria-transformed macrophages display many features of cancer cells such as their consumption of larger quantities of glucose. The BCL-2 family protein BAD has an alternative function in glucose metabolism separate from its role in apoptosis. The activity of BAD is regulated by phosphorylation in response to growth/survival factors. BAD can be phosphorylated on Ser155 by PKA. So during my thesis studies I examined the role of PKA mediated phosphorylation of BAD in the regulation of the cellular metabolism of Theileria-transformed macrophages. My results showed that ablation of BAD S155 phosphorylation dissociates the mitochondrial complex of BAD and HK2 and cytosolic HK2 becomes ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome. Loss of HK2 switches the metabolism of Theileria-transformed leukocytes from Warburg-like to OXPHOS-like glycolysis.

Le TGF-β (Transforming growth factor-β) régule de nombreux processus cellulaires et la dérégulation de la signalisation du TGF-β est associée à divers troubles vasculaires. Dans le laboratoire du Dr Génot, le TGF-β a été découvert comme étant le facteur capable d’induire la formation de podosomes organisés en superstructures, appelées rosettes, dans les cellules endothéliales aortiques. Les podosomes sont des structures à base d’actine, formées de façon transitoire, capables de dégrader la matrice extracellulaire (MEC). Dans ce projet, nous avons étudié les récepteurs du TGF-β et les mécanismes moléculaires associés, impliqués dans la formation des podosomes en réponse au TGF-β dans le modèle des cellules endothéliales aortiques bovines primaires (BAEc). Deux types de récepteurs du TGF-β de type I (TβRI), ALK5 et ALK1, régulent les réponses au TGF-β dans les cellules endothéliales, ALK5 étant un récepteur ubiquitaire et ALK1 étant un récepteur dont l’expression est restreinte aux cellules endothéliales. Ces deux récepteurs contrôlent l'activation de protéines Smads distinctes et réagissent à la stimulation par le TGF-β. ALK5 active Smad2/3 et ALK1 active Smad1/5/8. BMP9 est un autre ligand d’ALK1. ALK1 n'active pas Smad2/3 dans les BAEc et BMP9 inhibe la formation des podosomes induite par le TGF-β. La stimulation de Smad1/5/8 par le traitement au TGF-β est induite par la signalisation du complexe ALK1/ALK5. En utilisant une approche à base de siRNA ciblant l’un ou l’autre des TβRI, l’induction des podosomes par le TGF-β est supprimée. Cependant, la transfection des TβRI constitutivement actifs (CA) a montré que l’expression du CA-ALK5 se substitue au TGF-β pour induire des podosomes alors que l'expression du CA-ALK1 est inefficace. Concernant la signalisation en aval des TβRI, l'implication des protéines Smads a également été étudiée dans la régulation du processus. La diminution d’expression de Smad3 abolit complètement la formation des podosomes induite par le TGF-β alors que la déplétion des protéines Smad1 ou Smad5 augmente leur formation. La surexpression des protéines Smad2 ou Smad3, elles aussi, dans une certaine mesure, se substituent aux signaux du TGF-β, alors que la surexpression de Smad1 diminue la formation des podosomes en réponse au TGF-β. Le TGF-β est également capable de moduler la formation d'un autre type de structure d'actine appelée étoiles d’actine. Le nombre de cellules présentant des étoiles d'actine diminue avec le traitement au TGF-β. Cependant, dans les cellules déficientes en Smad3, la formation de ces étoiles d’actine semble être stimulée par le TGF-β. Dans les BAEc, la rigidité ainsi que les protéines de la MEC semblent aussi moduler la formation des podosomes et des étoiles d'actine. Ces travaux démontrent que, bien que le TGF-β stimule à la fois ALK5 et ALK1, la signalisation d’ALK5 induit la formation des podosomes et la signalisation d’ALK1 atténue ce signal. Les voies canoniques, par l’intermédiaire de la régulation des protéines Smads, contribuent à la formation des podosomes induits par le TGF-β dans les BAEc. / Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) regulates a wide array of cellular processes and deregulation of TGF-β signalling is associated with various vascular disorders. In the Lab of Dr. Génot it was discovered that TGF-β induces the formation of podosomes organised in superstructures called rosettes, in aortic endothelial cells. Podosomes are transient actin-based structures able to degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM). In this project we have studied TGF-β receptors and associated molecular mechanisms underlying podosome formation in response to TGF-β in primary bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEc). Two types of TGF-β type I receptors (TβRI), ALK5 and ALK1, regulate TGF-β responses in endothelial cells. ALK5 being an ubiquitous receptor and ALK1 being endothelial cell specific. Both ALK5 and ALK1 receptors control the activation of distinct Smad proteins, and both are responsive to TGF-β stimulation. ALK5 activates Smad 2/3 and ALK1 activates Smad 1/5/8. BMP9 is another ligand for ALK1. ALK1 doesn’t activate Smad2/3 in BAEc and ALK1 inhibits TGFβ-induced podosome formation. Smad1/5/8 stimulation by TGF-β treatment is induced through ALK1/ALK5 complex signalling. Using a knockdown approach, at the TβRI level, TGF-β induction of podosomes was inhibited. However, transfection of constitutively active (CA) TβRI showed that CA-ALK5 expression bypassed the TGF-β requirement for podosome induction whereas CA-ALK1 expression was ineffective. Looking downstream of TβRI signalling, the involvement of Smad proteins was also analysed in terms of podosome formation. Smad3 depletion completely abolished TGFβ-induced podosome formation whereas depletion of Smad1 or Smad5 proteins enhanced the TGFβ-induced podosome response. When overexpressed, Smad2 or Smad3, to some extent, bypassed TGFβ signals, whereas Smad1 overexpression diminished the TGFβ-induced podosome response. TGF-β also modulated the formation of another type of actin structure named actin-stars. The number of cells presenting actin-stars decreased with TGF-β treatment. However, in Smad3 depleted cells the formation of these actin-stars seemed to be stimulated by TGF-β. In BAEc stiffness and ECM proteins also seemed to modulate podosome and actin star formation. This project establishes that although TGF-β stimulates both ALK5 and ALK1, ALK5 signalling triggers podosome formation and ALK1 mitigates this signal. The canonical pathways through Smad protein regulation are important for TGF-β induced podosome in BAEc.

Les parasites Theileria (Theileria. annulata and T. parva) sont des protozoaires intracellulaires qui font partie du phylum des Apicomplexa. Theileria infecte les leucocytes bovins et les transforment en cellules cancéreuses, induisant un genre de leucémie chez le bovin et conduisant à la mort de l’animal. Les cellules infectées par Theileria démontrent certaines caractéristiques de cellules cancéreuses telles qu’une importante capacité d’invasion et de migration cellulaire. Cependant, le traitement de cellules infectées avec une drogue Theiléricide spécifique (buparvaquone) permet l'élimination du parasite et la réversion du phénotype transformé. De plus, la virulence peut être atténuée par passages répétés sur culture cellulaire. La similitude entre les cellules transformées par Theileria et la leucémie humaine fait de Theileria un modèle très important permettant l’étude des mécanismes cellulaires induits par le parasite au cours de la transformation de la cellule hôte. Mon laboratoire d’accueil a publié une augmentation significative de TGF-β2 dans les cellules virulentes et a constaté que parmi les 1158 cibles de TGF-β, 68 gènes ont été reconnus d'avoir modifié leurs niveaux de transcription concomitante avec l'atténuation. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons étudié les voies de signalisations impliquées dans la régulation de l’adhésion et l’invasion des cellules infectées par Theileria. Nous nous sommes particulièrement intéressés à l’étude de la voie de signalisation TGF-β2 et ses effecteurs. Nos résultats montrent que l’activation de la voie de signalisation de TGF-β2 par Theileria entraîne une augmentation de l’invasion et de l’adhérence des cellules transformées par deux mécanismes différents, soit en activant la voie de signalisation PGE2/EP4/cAMP/PKA/EPAC/CREB, soit en stimulant la voie GRB2/PI3-K/AP-1. Les macrophages atténués infectés par Theileria sont plus stressés oxydativement ce qui diminue leur adhérence et leur invasion cellulaire. Ceci nous a amené à étudier en collaboration avec un autre doctorant (Mehdi Metheni) le rôle de TGF-β2 dans la régulation du stress oxydatif dans les macrophages infectés par Theileria. Nos données montrent que les niveaux élevés de TGF-β2 stimule l’expression de la catalase, une enzyme anti-oxydante qui convertit le H2O2 en H2O et la baisse de H2O2 favorise la virulence en augmentant l’invasion et l’adhésion des cellules infectées par Theileria (résultats supplémentaires). De plus, nous avons examiné le statut de stress oxydatif et le type de glycolyse utilisé par les cellules infectées par Theileria. Les cellules transformées par Theileria agissent comme des cellules cancéreuses, elles consomment énormément de glucose. La protéine BAD joue un rôle important dans l’apoptose ainsi que dans la voie de glycolyse. Son activité est régulée par phosphorylation en réponse à des facteurs de croissance et de survie. BAD peut être phosphorylée par la PKA sur le résidu sérine 155. Durant ma thèse, nous avons examiné le rôle de la phosphorylation de BAD par la PKA dans la régulation du métabolisme cellulaire des macrophages infectés par Theileria. Nos résultats montrent que l’abolition de la phosphorylation de BAD par la PKA dissocie le complexe mitochondrial formé entre BAD et HK2, ce qui induit l’ubiquitynation et la dégradation de HK2 par le protéasome. La baisse de HK2 stimule la voie de phosphorylation oxydative en faveur de l’effet Warburg dans les cellules infectées par Theileria. / Theileria parasites (Theileria. annulata and T. parva) are intracellular protozoa and members of the phylum Apicomplexa. Theileria parasites are the only eukaryotes that possess the property of being able to transform another eukaryote, their leukocyte host cells. Transformed leukocytes show many characteristics of tumour cells such as heightened invasive capacity; however the tumour-like phenotype can be totally reversed upon drug induced parasite death and attenuated by multiple in vitro passages. Such multiple-passaged attenuated lines are used as live vaccines against tropical theileriosis. The similarities in tumour hyper-invasiveness between Theileria-transformed leukcocytes and human lymphomas imply that observations on Theileria-induced leukocyte transformation have the potential to give generally applicable insights into the mechanisms underpinning tumour virulence. My host laboratory described higher TGF-β2 levels in virulent infected macrophages and following microarray analysis of virulent compared to attenuated macrophages found that among the 1158 TGF-β-targets, 68 genes had altered transcript levels concomitant with attenuation. In this study, we investigate the signalling pathways involved in the regulation of cellular adhesion and invasiveness of Theileria-infected cells. We were especially interested in the study of TGF-β2 signalling in Theileria-transformed virulent versus attenuated macrophages. My results indicate that following Theileria infection of macrophages, the TGF-β2 signalling pathway is activated and induces an increase in adhesion of virulent transformed macrophages through two different mechanisms: either by activating a PGE2 / EP4 / cAMP / PKA / EPAC / CREB signaling pathway, or by stimulating a GRB2 / PI3-K / AP-1 pathway. As attenuated macrophages display heightened oxidative stress, which underpins their loss of adhesion and invasiveness, in collaboration with another PhD student (Mehdi Metheni) we investigated the role of TGF-β2 in the regulation of the oxidative stress status of Theileria-infected macrophages. Our data show that high levels of TGF-β2 increase the expression of catalase, an anti-oxidant enzyme that converts H2O2 into H2O and the drop in H2O2 output results in regain of the virulence trait heightened adhesion of Theileria-transformed macrophages to fibronectin. Theileria-transformed macrophages display many features of cancer cells such as their consumption of larger quantities of glucose. The BCL-2 family protein BAD has an alternative function in glucose metabolism separate from its role in apoptosis. The activity of BAD is regulated by phosphorylation in response to growth/survival factors. BAD can be phosphorylated on Ser155 by PKA. So during my thesis studies I examined the role of PKA mediated phosphorylation of BAD in the regulation of the cellular metabolism of Theileria-transformed macrophages. My results showed that ablation of BAD S155 phosphorylation dissociates the mitochondrial complex of BAD and HK2 and cytosolic HK2 becomes ubiquitinated and degraded by the proteasome. Loss of HK2 switches the metabolism of Theileria-transformed leukocytes from Warburg-like to OXPHOS-like glycolysis.

A transição endotélio-mesenquimal (EndMT) é uma forma especializada da transição epitéliomesenquimal (EMT) e é caracterizada pela alteração da morfologia celular para um formato fibroblastoide, perda da expressão dos marcadores endoteliais e ganho da expressão dos marcadores mesenquimais, bem como a aquisição de propriedades invasivas e migratórias. Entretanto, o mecanismo molecular envolvido nesse processo ainda não está totalmente elucidado. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar os fatores indutores da EMT em células endoteliais (CEs) de fontes distintas por meio da superexpressão do fator de transcrição SNAIL e do tratamento com TGF-?2, bem como identificar os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos nesse processo. Para tal, as linhagens de CE da artéria pulmonar (HPAEC), pool de CE primária de veia de cordão umbilical (PHUVEC), CE da aorta (PAEC) e CE da artéria coronária (CAEC) foram induzidas em três condições distintas: I) TGF-?2; II) superexpressão do fator de transcrição SNAIL; III) superexpressão do fator de transcrição SNAIL associado ao tratamento com TGF-?2 (SNAIL+TGF-?2). Após a indução, a expressão dos genes relacionados com a EndMT foi analisada por PCR em tempo real (qPCR) e as CAECs foram as células que apresentaram maior mudança no perfil de expressão gênica, no qual o grupo SNAIL+TGF-?2 apresentou um aumento dos marcadores mesenquimal FN1, SM22, CNN1 e CD90. O grupo SNAIL+TGF-?2 também mostrou uma diminuição dos marcadores endoteliais CD31 e CDH5 por Western blot. Em seguida, a técnica de microarray foi realizada nas CAECs induzidas à EndMT e as análises revelaram um dendrograma cujo perfil mostrou que SNAIL e SNAIL+TGF-?2 se agrupam separadamente das outras condições. Os dados de microarray resultaram em uma rede na qual os genes mesenquimais COL1A1, COL1A2, FN1 e CNN1 estavam aumentados no grupo SNAIL+TGF-?2 comparado com o grupo controle. Os genes diferencialmente expressos entre a análise CT vs. SNAIL+TGF-?2 foram analisados quanto a participação em vias canônicas e a via de regulação da EMT foi uma das mais representadas, a qual inclui a via de sinalização Notch e Wnt. Nos dados de microarray, NOTCH3 e WNT5B estavam superexpressos no grupo SNAIL+TGF-?2 comparado com o controle. Sabendo que Wnt5b pode inibir a via ?-catenina, a expressão de NOTCH3, WNT5B e ?-CATENINA foi avaliada por qPCR e a expressão de NOTCH3 e WNT5B confirmou os dados do microarray e nenhuma diferença estatística foi observada na expressão de ?- CATENINA. Ainda, as CAECs induzidas foram submetidas ao ensaio de migração e de capacidade de formação de estruturas semelhantes a capilares. Foi observado que as CAECSNAIL+ TGF-?2 migraram significativamente comparadas com as outras condições e nenhuma das células induzidas (TGF-?2, SNAIL e SNAIL+TGF-?2) foram capazes de formar estruturas semelhantes a capilares. Alguns microRNAs foram selecionados e avaliados por qPCR. O miR-let7a foi significativamente expresso no grupo SNAIL e SNAIL+TGF-?2. O ensaio de perda e ganho de função do miR-let7a foi realizado, entretanto, a repressão ou a indução do miR-let7a não alterou a EndMT. Esses resultados sugerem que as CEs de fontes anatômicas distintas apresentam respostas diferentes quando estimuladas a sofrerem EndMT. Ademais, a associação entre SNAIL+TGF-?2 é um potente indutor para EndMT e essa indução pode ser mediada pelas vias de sinalização Notch e Wnt não canônica. / Endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) is a specialized form of epithelialmesenchymal transition (EMT) which is characterized by changes in cell morphology as a fibroblastoid conversion, expression of endothelial markers decreased, expression of mesenchymal markers increased and acquirement of invasive and migratory properties. However, the molecular mechanism associated with this process is not completely elucidated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the EMT-inducing factors in the endothelial cells (ECs) from different sources through the overexpression of the transcription factor SNAIL and through the treatment with TGF-?2, as well as to identify the molecular mechanisms involved in EndMT. For this purpose, primary pulmonary artery EC (HPAEC), primary pooled umbilical vein EC (PHUVEC), primary aortic EC (PAEC), primary coronary artery EC (CAEC) lineages were induced under three distinct conditions: I) TGF-?2; II) ectopic expression of SNAIL; III) ectopic expression of SNAIL associated with TGF-?2 (SNAIL+TGF- ?2). After the EndMT induction, the expression of the genes associated with EndMT was analyzed by Real time PCR (qPCR) and CAECs showed the most prominent alterations on their gene expression profile which showed that SNAIL+TGF-?2 group presented an increase of mesenchymal markers FN1, SM22, CNN1, and CD90 expression. CAEC-SNAIL+TGF-?2 group also showed a decrease of endothelial markers CD31 and CDH5 by western blot. Then, microarray was performed in CAECs after EndMT induction and hierarchical clustering analysis showed that the ectopic expression of SNAIL and SNAIL+TGF-?2 clustered separately from the other conditions. Microarray data resulted in a network which presented an upregulation of the mesenchymal genes such as COL1A1, COL1A2, FN1, and CNN1 in the CAEC-SNAIL+TGF-?2 compared to control cells. We analyzed the canonical pathways related to the differentially regulated genes between CAEC- SNAIL+TGF-?2 and control cells and the regulation of EMT pathways was the most represented, which includes Notch and Wnt signaling pathway. In the microarray data, NOTCH3 and WNT5B were overexpressed in CAEC-SNAIL+TGF-?2 compared to control. It is known that Wnt5b might inhibit the ?- catenin pathway. Therefore, NOTCH3, WNT5B and ?-CATENIN gene expression were analyzed by qPCR. NOTCH3 and WNT5B gene expression confirmed the microarray data and no statistical difference were observed in ?-CATENIN expression. Moreover, all the CAECs conditions were subjected to scratch migration assay and the formation of capillary-like structures assay. CAEC-SNAIL+TGF-?2 had a significant migration compared to other conditions and the three EndMT inductions (TGF-?2, SNAIL, and SNAIL+TGF-?2) were not able to form capillary-like structures. Some microRNAs were selected and evaluated by qPCR. The miR-let7a was significantly expressed in the SNAIL and SNAIL+TGF-?2 groups. The assay of gain or loss of function of miR-let7a was realized; however, the repression or induction of miR-let7a did not change the EndMT. These results suggest that endothelial cells from distinct anatomical sources have different responses when stimulated to undergo the EndMT. Moreover, the association between SNAIL+TGF-?2 is a potent inductor for EndMT and this induction can be mediated by Notch and non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway activation.

O vítreo apresenta remodelamento de seus componentes durante a patogênese de doenças como descolamento de retina, buraco de mácula e membrana epirretínica e os fatores que levam a essas alterações ainda não são completamente conhecidos. As células gliais de Müller exercem um papel regulatório importante na retina, principalmente na produção de TGF-beta, e participam na formação de membranas contráteis em doenças da interface vítreo retínica. O TGF-beta está aumentado tanto na retina como no vítreo, em condições de doença, tendo o papel importante de ativar a capacidade contrátil na interface do tecidos estudados. MicroRNAs são moléculas de RNA fita simples de 19-25 nucleotídeos, endógenos, não codificantes e potentes reguladores pós-transcricional da expressão gênica, portanto potenciais alvos terapêuticos eficientes para o tratamento das doenças da interface vítreo-retínica. Em linhagem de células de Müller de rato (rMC-1), o tratamento com TGF- &#946 1 em concentração de 5 ng/ml leva a diminuição da expressão gênica de let7-b e let7-c, após 24 horas de tratamento. Já em linhagem humana de Müller ( MIO-M1), a expressão gênica de let-7b e let-7c foi alterada com 10 ng/ml de TGF- &#946 1 e TGF- &#946 2. TGF- &#946 2 induziu a uma queda da expressão de let-7b e let-7c, que variou entre 70% e 40 % , após 24 e 48 horas de tratamento. Investigamos os possíveis alvos desses miRNAs, COL1A1, COL1A2 e HAS2, proteínas que possuem relação com as alterações da interface vítreo-retiniana. Entretanto, a análise da expressão de RNAm de COL1A1 e COL1A2 após a estimulação de MIO-M1 com TGF- &#946 1 e TGF- &#946 2 não apresentou alterações. No estudo com gene reporter de luciferase validamos COL1A2 como um novo alvo de let-7b na célula de Müller. Nos estudos funcionais observamos que o let-7c mimético diminui a contração do gel de colágeno, Dessa forma, neste estudo concluímos que o micro-ambiente das células de Müller nas doenças da interface vítreo-retiniana, pode alterar a expressão dos miRNAs da família let7 e, consequentemente, levar à formação de membranas densas e contráteis. / Vitreous remodeling occurs during disease pathogenesis, such as retinal detachment, macular hole and epiretinal membrane, and the factors that lead to these alterations are still not fully determined. Müller glial cells regulate TGF-beta production in the retina and participate in the formation of contractile membranes in vitreoretinal interface.TGF-beta is increased in both vitreous and retina in disease conditions, and are key participants in activating contractible capacity. MicroRNAs are short (19- 25 nucleotides), endogenous, non-coding RNA, involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation, that have a potential role as new therapeutic targets for vitreoretinal interface diseases. In rat Müller cell line (rMC-1), treatment with 5ng /ml of TGF-&#946 1 induced a downregulation of let7-b and let7-c expression after 24 hours. In Müller human line (MIO-M1), let-7b and let-7c expression were altered with 10 ng / ml of TGF-&#946 1 and TGF-&#946 2. TGF-&#946 2 induced a downregulation ranging from 70% to 40%, after 24 and 48 hours of treatment. We investigated the possible targets of these miRNAs: COL1A1, COL1A2 and HAS2, proteins that are related to vitreoretinal interface alterations. However, the analysis of COL1A1 and COL1A2 mRNA expression after stimulation of MIO-M1 with TGF-&#946 1 and TGF-&#946 2 did not show any changes. The luciferase gene reporter analysis revealed COL1A2 as a let-7b target in the Müller cell. In the functional studies we observed that the let-7c mimic decreases collagen gel contraction. In summary, we conclude that the microenvironment of Müller cells in vitreoretinal interface diseases may alter the expression of the miRNAs of the let7 family and, consequently, lead to the formation of dense and contractile membranes.

Un nombre croissant d'observations suggèrent que les pDC sont fortement impliqués dans le cancer, car les pDC sont recrutés dans des tumeurs solides, tant chez les patients humains que chez les modèles murins et sont généralement en corrélation avec un mauvais pronostique. Les pDC infiltrant les tumeurs présentent souvent un phénotype immature et sont des pauvres producteurs de IFN-I, de cytokines et de chimiokines pro-inflammatoires en réponse à la stimulation TLR, contribuant à l'établissement d'un micro-environnement tumoral immunosuppresseur qui favorise la croissance tumorale. D'autre part, lorsqu'ils sont activés à l'intérieur de la tumeur, les pDC pourraient être capable de générer des réponses immunitaires antitumorales efficaces qui contribueraient à la régression tumorale. Ce double rôle de TA-pDC rend cette population cellulaire d'un grand intérêt pour être ciblée dans l'immunothérapie tumorale. Par conséquent, notre étude est centrée sur l'exploration du rôle de pDC dans l'orchestration des réponses immunitaires antitumorales, visant à déchiffrer les caractéristiques fonctionnelles de pDC dans le micro-environnement de la tumeur.Nos résultats montrent que les pDC sont recrutés dans le micro-environnement de la tumeur TC-1 et B16-OVA, et les pDC infiltrant les tumeurs dans les deux modèles de tumeurs présentent un profil d'activation et d'expression génique distinct par rapport aux pDC purifiés à partir de la rate naïve, ce qui suggère un effet du microenvironnement tumoral dans le phénotype et les fonctions de TC-1 et BDC-OVA infiltrant pDC. En fait, les facteurs solubles sécrétés par les cellules tumorales TC-1 et B16-OVA et présentes dans le micro-environnement de la tumeur sont capables d'affecter fortement les fonctions des pDC, notamment leur capacité à produire IFN-α après la stimulation TLR-9. Parmi les facteurs solubles présents dans le micro-environnement de la tumeur, nos résultats montrent que le TGF-β seul est capable de bloquer la production d'IFN-α, suggérant clairement une influence du TGF-β dans les mécanismes intracellulaires conduisant à la production d'IFN-I par pDC. En outre, notre étude révèle que les effets du TGF-β sur le pDC affectent aussi les capacités de production de l'IFN-I, mais aussi leur capacité à sécréter d'autres cytokines et chimiokines ainsi que leur phénotype. Enfin, l'étude de l'environnement tumoral TC-1 en l'absence de pDC démontre un rôle délétère de cette population dans la croissance de la tumeur et montre une fonction claire de pDC dans l'induction de réponses immunitaires anti-tumorales dépendantes de NK.Les résultats obtenus au cours de cette thèse de doctorat ont mis en évidence le rôle important de la PDC dans le contexte tumoral et ont permis une meilleure compréhension du ciblage de cette population cellulaire contre l'immunothérapie tumorale / A growing number of observations suggest that pDC are highly implicated in cancer, since pDC are recruited into solid tumors, both in human patients and in murine models and generally correlate with a poor clinical outcome. Tumor infiltrating pDC often exhibit an immature phenotype and are poor producers of IFN-I and pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in response to TLR stimulation, contributing to the establishment of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment that promotes tumor growth. On the other hand, when activated inside the tumor, pDC could be able to generate efficient anti-tumor immune responses that would contribute to tumor regression. This dual role of TA-pDC renders this cell population of great interest to be targeted in tumor immunotherapy. Hence, our study is centered in exploring the role of pDC in the orchestration of anti-tumor immune responses, aiming to decipher functional characteristics of pDC within the tumor microenvironment. Our results show that pDC are recruited into the TC-1 and B16-OVA tumor microenvironment and tumor infiltrating pDC in both tumor models exhibit a distinct activation and gene expression profile as compared to pDC purified from naïve spleen, suggesting an effect of the tumor microenvironment in the phenotype and functions of TC-1 and B16-OVA infiltrating pDC. In fact, the soluble factors secreted by the TC-1 and B16-OVA tumor cells and present in the tumor microenvironment are able to greatly affect pDC functions, more importantly their ability to produce IFN-α following TLR-9 stimulation. Among the soluble factors present in the tumor microenvironment, our results show that TGF-β alone is able to impair the production of IFN-α, clearly suggesting an influence of TGF-β in the intracellular machinery leading to IFN-I production by pDC. In addition, our study reveals that the effects of TGF-β on pDC are broader affecting not only the IFN-I producing abilities, but also their capacity to secrete other cytokines and chemokines as well as their phenotype. Finally, the study of the TC-1 tumor environment in the absence of pDC demonstrates a deleterious role of this population in the tumor growth and shows a clear function of pDC in the induction of NK-dependent anti-tumor immune responses.The results obtained throughout this PhD thesis highlighted the important role of pDC in the tumoral context and allowed further insight in targeting this cell population to tumor immunotherapy

Le symporteur Sodium Iodure (NIS) est une glycoprotéine transmembranaire catalysant le transport actif de l’iodure circulant et participant ainsi à la voie de biosynthèse des hormones thyroïdiennes. L’activité de captation de l’iode médiée par NIS est à la base du diagnostic par imagerie nucléaire et du traitement par radiothérapie à l'iode 131 des cancers thyroïdiens, ce qui fait de NIS un réel marqueur d’intérêt clinique pour une utilisation potentielle dans les cancers non-thyroïdiens qui l’expriment. La connaissance des mécanismes de régulation et d’adressage membranaire de NIS est limitée. Nous identifions une nouvelle fonction de NIS dans la migration et l’invasion cellulaires indépendamment de sa fonction de transport. Cette fonction est facilitée par l’activation de RhoA suite à l’interaction protéine-protéine de NIS avec LARG (Leukemia-Associated RhoA Guanine Exchange Factor). Notre travail a révélé que cette accumulation de NIS dans les compartiments intracellulaires de cellules cancéreuses était également observée dans les cancers primitifs et métastatiques du foie. Nous montrons l’importance de la voie de signalisation du TGF-β, fréquemment activée dans les cancers humains, dans le défaut d’adressage de NIS. Nos travaux suggèrent qu’une thérapie basée sur des inhibiteurs pharmacologiques de la voie du TGF-β serait capable de corriger ce défaut d’adressage, rendant ainsi possible un traitement par radiothérapie métabolique / The sodium iodide symporter (NIS) is a glycosylated protein that mediates the active transport of iodide for thyroid hormone biosynthesis. The ability of the thyroid to accumulate iodide via NIS has provided the basis for diagnostic imaging and served as effective treatment by radioiodine to target and destroy thyroid cancers. This propriety makes NIS a real marker of clinical interest for potential use in non-thyroid cancers which express it, however, the mechanisms of regulation and membrane targeting of NIS remain unknown. We identify a new function of NIS in cell migration and invasion independently of its transport activity. This function is facilitated by the activation of RhoA after the protein-protein interaction of NIS and LARG (Leukemia-Associated RhoA Guanine Exchange Factor). Our work has shown that this accumulation of NIS in intracellular compartments of cancer cells was also observed in primary and metastatic liver cancers. Our results pointed out the importance of TGF-β signaling pathway, frequently activated in human cancers, in NIS default targeting. Our work suggests that a therapy based on pharmacological inhibitors of TGF-β could be able to correct this targeting defect, making metabolic radiotherapy possible

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

A Distrofia Muscular de Duchenne (DMD) tem como característica marcante a substituição do músculo pelo tecido fibroso, sendo este um dos maiores obstáculos para a eficácia de terapias para a distrofia muscular. Intervenções para preveni-la provavelmente poderão ser necessárias como parte de um tratamento eficaz. Correlações significativas entre fibrose e a expressão do TGF-beta, uma citocina fibrogênica multifuncional nas distrofias musculares têm sido relatadas, enfatizando o papel dessa citocina no desenvolvimento da fibrose muscular e sugerindo-a como alvo para terapias antifibróticas. Nesse estudo avaliamos o efeito do Losartan sobre o desenvolvimento da fibrose na musculatura esquelética do modelo canino Golden Retriever Muscular Dystrophy (GRMD). Foi realizado previamente um estudo piloto com um cão distrófico para estipular dosagem e eventuais efeitos colaterais ao medicamento. Foram utilizados cinco cães adultos, sendo dois machos e duas fêmeas e um animal controle. Utilizou-se a dose de 50mg de Losartan, administrada via oral, uma vez ao dia. Os exames clínicos e laboratoriais não evidenciaram reação adversa durante o período do experimento, portanto, o Losartan mostrou-se como uma terapia segura. Os fragmentos da biopsia muscular retirados antes de iniciar com o Losartan (T0) e após (Tf) foram utilizados para histologia e imuno-histoquimica do TGF-beta1 para comparação destes dois tempos. As avaliações de goniometria e perimetria juntamente com os resultados de imuno-histoquimica e quantificação do colágeno ajudaram a inferir sobre o efeito do Losartan na fibrose do músculo distrófico. Não foi encontrada diferença significativa para os valores de goniometria e perimetria. Já a porcentagem da área de deposição de colágeno dos animais nos Tf foi estatisticamente menor do que o T0. A diminuição da presença do TGF-beta1 evidenciada nas imagens de imuno-histoquimica, com a diminuição do depósito de colágeno, após o período de uso do Losartan, sugerem um efeito inibitório do medicamento sobre esta citocina nos músculos dos cães GRMD estudados. / Duchenne Muscular Dystophy (DMD) has the substitution of the muscle by connective tissue as its most relevant characteristic. Once fibrotic proliferation is a major obstacle to the efficacy of therapies for muscular dystrophies, early interventions to prevent it will probably be necessary as part of an effective treatment. A significant correlation between fibrosis and the expression of TGF-beta 1, a multifunctional cytokine, in Duchenne muscular dystrophies has been reported, emphasizing the role of this cytokine in the development of muscle fibrosis, and suggesting it as target for fibrotic therapies. In this study we evaluated the effect of Losartan over the development of the connective tissue on the skeletal musculature of the canine model GRMD. One dystrophic dog was previously used in the pilot study to estipulate the dosage and any side effects caused by Losartan. Five adults dystrophics dogs, two male and two female and one control animal were used in the experiment. A dose of 50mg of Losartan was orally given once a day. The clinical and laboratorial exams did not show any adverse effect through the experimental period, therefore Losartan utilization showed to be a safe therapy. Muscle biopsy fragments have been removed before starting Losartan (T0) and after (Tf) were used for histology and TGF-beta1 imunohistochemistry to compare this two times. The evaluations range of motion and limb circumference measures within imunohistochemistry and colagen quantification results helped to infer about Losartan effect in the dystrophic muscle fibrose. Range of motion and limb circumference values did not show statistical difference. Although the percentage of connective tissue deposition area in the animals in Tf was statistically lower than T0. The decrease of TGF-beta1 signalization showed in imunohistochemistry pictures within the decrease of connective tissue deposition, after Losartan, suggest an inhibitory effect of this medication through this cytokine in the studied GRMD muscle.

Το μονοπάτι του Transforming- Growth Factor beta είναι ένα από τα πιο πολύπλοκα και πιο καλά μελετημένα σε μια σειρά παθήσεων και έχει βρεθεί να δρα άλλοτε ως ογκοκατασταλτικό και άλλοτε ως προαγωγό της κακοήθους εξαλλαγής. Πρόσφατα έγινε η ανακάλυψη των υποστρωμάτων του, της οικογένειας των Smad πρωτεϊνών, που μεταφέρουν το σήμα στον πυρήνα του κυττάρου, με τη συμμετοχή πολλαπλών παραγόντων, συν –ενεργοποιητών ή συν – καταστολέων. Η Ski πρωτεΐνη έχει ταυτοποιηθεί τελευταία ως ένας σημαντικός συν-καταστολέας του εν λόγω μονοπατιού. Επιπλέον, ο καρκίνος του μαστού είναι ένας από τους πιο συχνούς καρκίνους στις γυναίκες και η ανακάλυψη καινούριων μορίων στόχων μοριακής θεραπείας αποτελεί μια μεγάλη πρόκληση, ιδίως σε ασθενείς με νόσο αρχικού σταδίου. Σκοπός της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής ήταν η μελέτη της έκφρασης του υποδοχέα του TGF-β, των πρωτεϊνών Smad2/3, Smad4 και Ski σε καρκινώματα μαστού σταδίου Τ1 και Τ2 με απουσία λεμφαδενικών μεταστάσεων, και η συσχέτιση της έκφρασης τους με ποικίλες κλινικοεργαστηριακές παραμέτρους, κυριότερες των οποίων ήταν ο βαθμός κακοηθείας των όγκων, η έκφραση ορμονικών υποδοχέων, η εμφάνιση απομακρυσμένων μεταστάσεων καθώς και ο θάνατος των ασθενών. Υλικά και μέθοδος: Σε 146 δείγματα από πορογενή καρκινώματα μαστού (εκ των οποίων 21 in situ και 125 διηθητικά) μελετήθηκε με τη μέθοδο της ανοσοϊστοχημείας (έμμεση μέθοδος βιοτίνης- στρεπταβιδίνης) η έκφραση των προαναφερθέντων μορίων. Η εκτίμηση της ανοσοθετικότητας ήταν τόσο ποιοτική (θετικη – αρνητική), όσο και ποσοτική (αρνητική, μέτρια, έντονη) ανάλογα με το ποσοστό των θετικών νεοπλασματικών κυττάρων και την ένταση της χρώσης. Η στατιστική ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων έγινε με το στατιστικό πρόγραμμα SPSS 13 for windows. Αποτελέματα: Η έκφραση του υποδοχέα του TGF-β είχε στατιστικώς σημαντική, αντίστροφη συσχέτιση με το βαθμό κακοηθείας των όγκων, καθώς και με την εμφάνιση αιματογενών μεταστάσεων και θανάτου των ασθενών. Η έκφραση της Smad2/3 πρωτεΐνης αποδείχτηκε ανεξάρτητος προγνωστικός παράγοντας στα Grade I διηθητικά καρκινώματα και η Smad4 βρέθηκε να αποτελεί ισχυρό προγνωστικό παράγοντα στους ER (Estrogen Receptor) θετικούς όγκους. Η έκφραση της Smad2/3 και της Smad4 συσχετίστηκαν σημαντικά τόσο μεταξύ τους όσο και με την έκαραση του TGF-β υποδοχέα. Η έκφραση της πρωτεΐνης Ski συσχετίστηκε με το βαθμό κακοηθείας των όγκων, την παρουσία αιματογενών μεταστάσεων και αποδείχτηκε ανεξάρτητος προγνωστικός παράγοντας για την επιβίωση των ασθενών. Επίσης σημαντική ήταν η παρατήρηση της ενδοκυττάριας μετακίνησης της Ski από τον πυρήνα προς το κυτταρόπλασμα του κυττάρου, αυξανομένου του βαθμού κακοηθείας των όγκων και η στατιστικώς σημαντική συσχέτιση της παρουσίας κυτταροπλασματικής Ski ανοσοχρώσης και απώλειας έκφρασης της πρωτεΐνης Smad2/3. Συμπεράσματα: Οι Smad πρωτεΐνες αποδεικνύεται για άλλη μια φορά να αποτελούν τα ενδοκυττάρια υποστρώματα του TGF-β και φαίνεται να διαδραματίζουν ρόλο ογκοκατασταλτικών πρωτεϊνών στην εξέλιξη της νεοπλασίας του μαζικού αδένα, ενώ η Ski πρωτεϊνη δρα ως ένα ισχυρό ογκογονίδιο καταστέλλοντας τη δράση του TGF-beta μονοπατιού. Όλες οι μελετηθείσες πρωτεΐνες αποτελούν δυνητικά ενδιαφέροντες στόχους μελλοντικής μοριακής θεραπείας. / Transgorming Growth Factor beta signaling pathway is thoroughly studied in a series of diseases and this molecule has been proved to act either as an ancogene or as a tumor suppressor molecule in human carcinogenesis. Recently, the Smad proteins’ family has been identified as TGF-b’s intracellular substrates, which transfer the signal in the cell’s nucleus. A lot of molecules have also been found to act as co-repressors or co-activators in this procedure. Ski protein is one of the most well known Smad proteins’ co-repressors. On the other hand, breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in women, and the fi of new predictive factors, especially in the early stages of the disease is very alluring. The purpose of the present study was the investigation of the expression of TGF-β receptor, as well as the expression of Smad2/3 and Ski protein in T1, T2, -node negative breast cancer specimens and theirs potent correlation with several clinicopathological parameters The most important of these were tumor Grade, hormone receptors’ positivity as well as the patients’ outcome (blood – borne metastases or death of their disease). Materials and methods: 146 breast cancer specimens were used, among which 21 in situ and 125 invasive. The proteins’ expression was studied using immunohistochemistry (biotin – streptabidin indirect method). The evaluation of the immunopositivity was not only qualitative (negative versus positive) but also quantitative (negative, weakly positive and strongly positive) depending on the number of positive tumor cells and the staining’s intensity). The statistical analysis of the results was implemented using the SPSS13 for windows. Results: TGF-β receptor’s expression was inversely correlated with tumor Grade as well as with the presence of blood- borne metastases and patients’ death. The expression of Smad2/3 protein was proved to be an independent prognostic factor in Grade I invasive carcinomas while loss of Smad4 expression was strongly correlated with poor patients’ outcome in ER (Estrogen Receptor) –positive tumors. All three proteins’ positivity had statistically significant correlation with each other. Ski proteins’ expression was strongly correlated with tumors’ Grade, the presence of distant metastases and was also an independent prognostic factor for patients’ survival. An other important observation was the intracellular metatopisi of Ski’ s expression from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in high Grade tumors and the strong relationship between cytoplasmic Ski and loss of expression of Smad2/3. Conclusions: Smad proteins seem to be TGF-beta intracellular substrates and, according to our results, play a tumor suppressor role in mammary gland tumorigenesis. On the other hand, Ski protein acts as an oncogene in breast carcinogenesis procedure modulating the TGF-beta pathways’ effect. All the studied proteins are potent targets of a future molecular therapy.