No description available.

Photon upconversion by sensitized triplet–triplet annihilation (UC-STTA) is a photophysical process that facilitates the conversion of two low-energy photons into a single high-energy photon. A low-energy photon is absorbed by a sensitizer molecule that produces a triplet excited state which is transferred to an emitter molecule. When two emitter triplet states encounter each other, TTA can take place to produce a singlet excited state which decays by emission of a high-energy (upconverted) photon. While traditional single-threshold dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have a maximum efficiency limit of ca. 30%, it has been predicted theoretically that implementation of UC-STTA in DSSCs could increase that efficiency to more than 40%. A possible way to implement UC-STTA into DSSCs, would be to replace the standard sensi- tized nanostructured TiO2 photoanodes by upconverting ones loaded with emitter molecules. Following TTA, the excited emitter molecule would be quenched by injection of a high-energy electron into the conduction band of the TiO2. To explore the practical aspects of this strategy for a highly efficient DSSC, in this thesis UC-STTA is studied in model systems based on nanostructured ZrO2 films. These ZrO2 films are a good proxy for the TiO2 films used in DSSCs, and allow for relatively easy optimization and study of UC-STTA by allowing measurements of the upconverted photons without the complications of electron injection into the film. Herein it is experimentally proven that UC-STTA is viable on nanostructured metal oxide films under non-coherent irradiation with intensities comparable to sunlight. Two different system architectures are studied, differing in the position of the molecular components involved in the UC-STTA mechanism. Both architectures have the emitter molecules adsorbed onto the ZrO2 surface, but the sensitizers are positioned either in solution around the nanostructure, or co-adsorbed with the emitters onto the ZrO2 surface. A set of challenges in the study and optimization of the UC-STTA process is identified for each type of system. Proposals are also given for how to further improve the understanding and UC-STTA optimization of these systems toward application in DSSCs to overcome the present solar energy conversion efficiency limit.

In the face of global warming and shrinking resources of fossil fuels the interest in solar energy has increased in recent years. However, the low energy and cost efficiency of current solar cells has up to this date hindered solar energy from playing a major role on the energy market. Photon upconversion is the process in which light of low energy is converted to high energy photons. Lately, this phenomenon has attracted renewed interest and ongoing research in this field mainly focuses on solar energy applications, solar cells in particular. The aim of this study was to investigate and evaluate amyloid fibrils as nanotemplates for an upconversion system based on the dyes platinum octaetylporphyrin (PtOEP) and 9,10- diphenylanthracene (DPA). This well-known pair of organic dyes upconverts light in the visible spectrum through a mechanism known as sensitized triplet-triplet annihilation. Amyloid fibrils are β-sheet rich protein fibril structures, formed by self-assembly of peptides. Amyloid fibrils were prepared from whey protein isolate using heat and acidic solutions. Dyes were incorporated according to a wellestablished technique, in which dyes are grinded together with the protein in solid state prior to fibrillization. Photophysical properties of pure fibrils and dye-incorporated fibrils were studied using UV-VIS spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy. Atomic force microscopy was further employed to confirm the presence of amyloid fibrils as well as to study fibril structure. Results indicate that amyloid fibrils may not be the optimal host material for the upconversion system PtOEP/DPA. It was found that the absorption and emission spectra of this system overlap to a great deal with that of the fibrils. Though no upconverted emission clearly generated by the dye system was recorded, anti-Stokes emission was indeed observed. Interestingly, this emission appears to be strongly enhanced by the presence of dyes. It is suggested that this emission may be attributed to the protein residues rather than the amyloid structure. Future studies are encouraged to further investigate these remarkable findings. / Intresset för solceller har ökat under de senaste åren, till stor del tillföljd av den globala uppvärmningen och de sinande oljeresurserna. Dagens solceller har dock problem med låg energi- och kostnadseffektivitet, vilket gör att solenergin än så länge har svårt att hävda sig på energimarknaden. Photon upconversion är ett fotofysikaliskt fenomen där fotoner med låg energi omvandlas till fotoner med hög energi. Den senaste tiden har denna process fått förnyat intresse och forskningen inom området har ökat, inte minst med sikte på att integrera processen i solceller och därmed öka dess effektivitet. Målet med denna studie var att undersöka huruvida amyloidfibriller kan användas som stomme för ett photon upconversion-system baserat på platinum-oktaetylporfyrin (PtOEP) och 9,10-difenylantracen (DPA). Dessa två organiska färgämnen är ett välkänt par som konverterar synligt ljus med låg frekvens till mer hög frekvent ljus i det synliga spektrumet, via en mekanism som kallas sensitized triplet-triplet annihilation. Amyloidfibriller är proteinbaserade fiberstrukturer med hög andel β-flak, vilka bildas genom självassociation av peptider. I denna studie skapades amyloidfibriller av vassleprotein genom upphettning i sur lösning. Färgämnena inkorporerades enligt en välbeprövad metod där proteinet mortlas tillsammans med färgämnena i fast tillstånd, innan fibrilleringsprocessen påbörjas. De fotofysikaliska egenskaperna hos fibriller med och utan färgämnen analyserade med UV-VIS samt fluorescensspektroskopi. Atomkraftsmikroskopi användes för att bekräfta att fibriller fanns i proven, samt för att studera dess struktur. De erhållna resultaten antyder att amyloidfibriller inte är ett optimalt material för systemet PtOEP/DPA, delvis på grund av att absorptions- och emissionsspektrumet för systemet överlappar med fibrillernas egna spektrum. Anti-Stokes emission detekterades, men denna är med stor sannolikhet inte orsakad av färgämnena. Dock noterades, intressant nog, att denna emission ökar betydligt i närvaro av färgämnena. En möjlighet är att denna emission är kopplad till monomerer i proteinet snarare än till fibrillstrukturen, eftersom emission observerades hos både nativt och fibrillerat protein. Framtida studier uppmuntras att vidare undersöka dessa effekter.

[ES] La conversión fotónica a alta frecuencia basada en la aniquilación triplete-triplete (CA-ATT) es considerada una de las tecnologías más atractivas para convertir radiación de longitud de onda de menor energía en otra de mayor energía. Los eventos asociados a este proceso bifotónico sincronizado incluyen el cruce intersistema (CIS), la transferencia de energía triplete-triplete (TEnTT), la aniquilación triplete-triplete (ATT) y la fluorescencia retardada. Este proceso de dos fotones, que requiere de un sistema bimolecular, se ha utilizado ampliamente en numerosos campos, como la generación de bioimágenes, el diseño de células solares, la fabricación de pantallas, la administración de fármacos, etc. Aunque el uso de luz visible de baja energía garantiza una tolerancia alta de grupos funcionales en las transformaciones químicas, sólo recientemente se han desarrollado nuevas estrategias para protocolos de síntesis orgánica mediados por CA-ATT. Esta tesis tiene como objetivo general desarrollar una metodología sostenible para ampliar el alcance actual de las reacciones de acoplamiento C-C, utilizando para ello luz visible como fuente de energía y colorantes orgánicos (libres de metales) como fotocatalizadores. El trabajo realizado se sitúa en las interfases de la fotofísica, la síntesis orgánica y las aplicaciones tecnológicas. Es de particular interés la combinación de varios factores que hacen que esta metodología resulte atractiva y de gran aplicabilidad en Química Orgánica, como son: i) la fotólisis con baja intensidad energética, que evita rupturas no selectivas de enlaces, así como la degradación no deseada de los reactivos/productos, ii) el uso de colorantes orgánicos libres de metales y no tóxicos como fotocatalizadores e iii) la utilización de reactivos de acoplamiento fácilmente accesibles, como los haluros de arilo. La aportación más original de esta tesis es la generación de luz de alta energía (en los rangos UVA o azul cercano al UVA) mediante tecnología CA-ATT, lo que permite iniciar el proceso fotocatalítico redox. / [CA] La conversió fotònica a alta freqüència basada en l'aniquilació triplet-triplet (CA-ATT) és considerada com una de les tecnologies més atractives per convertir radiació de longitud d'ona de menor energia en una altra mes energética. Els esdeveniments associats a aquest procés bifotònic sincronitzat inclouen el creuament intersistema (CIS), la transferència d'energia triplet-triplet (TEnTT), l'aniquilació triplet-triplet (ATT) i la fluorescència retardada. Aquest procés de dos fotons, que requereix un sistema bimolecular, s'ha utilitzat àmpliament en nombrosos camps, com ara la generació de bioimatges, el disseny de cèl·lules solars, la fabricació de pantalles, l'administració de fàrmacs, etc. Tot i que l'ús de llum visible de baixa energia garanteix una alta tolerància de grups funcionals en les transformacions químiques, només recentment s'han desenvolupat noves estratègies per a protocols de síntesi orgànica mitjançats per CA-ATT. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu general desenvolupar una metodologia sostenible per ampliar el repertori actual de les reaccions d'acoblament C-C, utilitzant per això llum visible com a font d'energia i colorants orgànics (lliures de metalls) com a fotocatalitzadors. El treball realitzat se situa a les interfases de la fotofísica, la síntesi orgànica i les aplicacions tecnològiques. És de particular interès la combinació de diversos factors que fan que aquesta metodologia resulti atractiva i de gran aplicabilitat a Química Orgànica, com són: i) la fotòlisi amb baixa intensitat energètica, que evita ruptures no selectives d'enllaços, així com la degradació no desitjada dels reactius/productes, ii) l'ús de colorants orgànics lliures de metalls i no tòxics com a fotocatalitzadors i iii) la utilització de reactius d'acoblament fàcilment accessibles, com els halurs d'aril. L'aportació més original d'aquesta tesi és la generació de llum d'alta energia (als rangs UVA o blau proper a l'UVA) mitjançant tecnologia CA-ATT, cosa que permet iniciar el procés fotocatalític redox. / [EN] Photon upconversion based on triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA-UC) is considered one of the most attractive technologies for switching wavelengths from lower to higher energy. The photochemical events associated with this synchronized biphotonic process includes intersystem crossing (ISC), triplet-triplet energy transfer (TTEnT), triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) and upconverted fluorescence. This two-photon process, which requires the involvement of a bimolecular system, has been widely used in numerous fields such as bioimaging, solar cells, displays, drug delivery, and so on. Even though the use of low-energy visible light ensures high functional-group tolerance in chemical transformations, new strategies for organic synthetic protocols mediated by TTA-UC have been only recently developed. This thesis aims to develop a sustainable chemical reaction methodology to expand the current scope of C-C Coupling reactions using visible light as energy source and organic (metal-free) dyes. The planned activities are at the interfaces of photophysical, organic synthesis, and technological studies. Of particular interest is the combination of several factors that makes this methodology attractive and highly applicable to organic chemistry: i) photolysis under low-energy intensity, which avoids unselective bond cleavages as well as undesired degradation of the corresponding reagents/products; ii) the use of metal-free and non-toxic organic dyes as photocatalysts; iii) involvement of common reactants for this type of coupling transformations such as aryl halides. The very original part of this thesis is the generation of high-energy blue-Vis or near UV light by TTA-UC technology, initiating the redox photocatalytic process. / Castellanos Soriano, J. (2024). Catálisis redox mediante conversión fotónica a alta frecuencia [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/203615

This work focusses on the high brightness performance of phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). The use of phosphorescent emitter molecules in OLEDs is essential to realize internal electron-photon conversion efficiencies of 100 %. However, due to their molecular nature, the excited triplet states have orders of magnitude longer time constants compared to their fluorescent counterparts which, in turn, strongly increases the probability of bimolecular annihilation. As a consequence, the efficiencies of phosphorescent OLEDs decline at high brightness – an effect known as efficiency roll-off, for which it has been shown to be dominated by triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA). In this work, TTA of the archetype phosphorescent emitter Ir(ppy)3 is investi- gated in time-resolved photoluminescence experiments. For the widely used mixed system CBP:Ir(ppy)3, host-guest TTA – an additional unwanted TTA channel – is experimentally observed at high excitation levels. By using matrix materials with higher triplet energies, this effect is efficiently suppressed, however further studies show that the efficiency roll-off of Ir(ppy)3 is much more pronounced than predicted by a model based on Förster-type energy transfer, which marks the intrinsic limit for TTA. These results suggest that the emitter molecules show a strong tendency to form aggregates in the mixed film as the origin for enhanced TTA. Transmission electron microscopy images of Ir(ppy)3 doped mixed films give direct proof of emitter aggregates. Based on these results, two concepts are developed that improve the high brightness performance of OLEDs. In a first approach, thin intrinsic matrix interlayers are incorporated in the emission layer leading to a one-dimensional exciton confinement that suppresses exciton migration and, consequently, TTA. The second concept reduces the efficiency roll-off by using an emitter molecule with slightly differ- ent chemical structure, i.e. Ir(ppy)2(acac). Compared to Ir(ppy)3, this emitter has a much smaller ground state dipole moment, suggesting that the improved performance is a result of weaker aggregation in the mixed film. The knowledge gained in the investigation of triplet-triplet annihilation is further used to develop a novel emission layer design for white organic LEDs. It comprises three phosphorescent emitters for blue, green, and red emission embedded in a multilayer architecture. The key feature of this concept is the matrix material used for the blue emitter FIrpic: Its triplet energy is in resonance with the FIrpic excited state energy which enables low operating voltages and high power efficiencies by reducing thermal relaxation. In order to further increase the device efficiency, the OLED architecture is optically optimized using high refractive index substrates and thick electron transport layers. These devices reach efficiencies which are on par with fluorescent tubes – the current efficiency benchmark for light sources. / Diese Arbeit richtet ihren Fokus auf die Untersuchung der Leistungsfähigkeit von phosphoreszenten, Licht-emittierenden organischen Dioden (OLEDs) im Bereich hoher Betriebshelligkeiten. Phosphoreszente Emittermoleku ̈le werden in OLEDs eingesetzt, um interne Elektron-Photon Konversionseffizienzen von 100% zu erreichen. Begründet in ihrer chemischen Struktur, weisen die angeregten Triplett-Zustände dieser Emitter um Größenordnungen längere Zeitkonstanten als die Emission fluo- reszenter Materialien auf, sodass die Wahrscheinlichkeit bimolekularer Auslöschung stark ansteigt. Dies resultiert in einem deutlichen Effizienzrückgang phosphoreszenter OLEDs bei großen Leuchtdichten. Dieser als Roll-off bekannter Effekt wird bei hohen Anregungsdichten hauptsächlich durch Triplett-Triplett Annihilation (TTA) bestimmt. In der Arbeit wird TTA an einem Modellmolekül, dem phosphoreszenten Emit- ter Ir(ppy)3, in zeitaufgelösten Photolumineszenz Experimenten untersucht. Für das bekannte Emittersystem CBP:Ir(ppy)3 wird bei hohen Anregungsdichten Host-Guest TTA beobachtet, was einen zusätzlichen, ungewünschten TTA Kanal darstellt. Dieser Effekt wird durch das Verwenden von Matrix Materialien mit höherer Triplett Energie vermieden, jedoch zeigt sich in weiteren Untersuchungen, dass der Roll-off deutlich stärker ist als von einem auf Förster Energieübertrag basierendem Modell vorhergesagt, welches selbst ein intrinsisches Limit für TTA in phosphoreszenten Systemen beschreibt. Die Diskrepanz zwischen experimenteller Beobachtung und Modellvorhersage wird durch eine starke Tendenz des Emitters, Aggregate zu bilden, erklärt, was TTA deutlich verstärkt. Diese Aggregate werden mit Hilfe von Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie an Ir(ppy)3-dotierten Mischsystemen direkt nachgewiesen. Basierend auf diesen Resultaten werden zwei Konzepte entwickelt, um die Effizienz phosphoreszenter Systeme bei hohen Helligkeiten zu verbessern. Im ersten Ansatz werden dünne intrinsische Schichten des Matrixmaterials in die Emissionsschicht eingebaut, was die Exzitonenbewegung in einer Raumrichtung und damit auch TTA stark unterdrückt. Das zweite Konzept reduziert den Effizienz Roll-off durch die Verwendung eines phosphoreszenten Emitters Ir(ppy)2(acac) mit einer leicht abgeänderten Molekularstruktur. Im Vergleich mit Ir(ppy)3 weist dieser ein deutlich kleineres Dipolmoment im molekularen Grundzustand auf, wodurch die Aggregation vermindert wird. Aufbauend auf den Ergebnissen der TTA wird ein neuartiges Emissionsschicht-Design für weißes Licht entwickelt. In diesem Konzept werden drei phosphoreszente Materialien für blaue, grüne und rote Farbe in eine Vielschicht-Architektur eingebracht. Das Hauptmerkmal der Emissionsschicht ist die Wahl des Matrix-Materials für dem blauen Emitter FIrpic: Seine Triplett Energie liegt resonant zu dem FIrpic Triplett Zustand, wodurch niedrige Betriebsspannungen und hohe Leistungseffizienzen ermöglicht werden, da die thermische Relaxierung reduziert wird. Um die Ef- fizienz dieser weißen OLEDs weiter zu erhöhen, wird die entwickelte OLED Architektur zusätzlich durch die Verwendung von hochbrechenden Substraten und dicken Elektronen-Transportschichten optisch optimiert. Bei beleuchtungsrelevanten Helligkeiten erreichen diese OLEDs das Effizienzniveau von Leuchtstoffröhren – letztere stellen heute den Effizienz-Maßstab dar.

This work focusses on the high brightness performance of phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). The use of phosphorescent emitter molecules in OLEDs is essential to realize internal electron-photon conversion efficiencies of 100 %. However, due to their molecular nature, the excited triplet states have orders of magnitude longer time constants compared to their fluorescent counterparts which, in turn, strongly increases the probability of bimolecular annihilation. As a consequence, the efficiencies of phosphorescent OLEDs decline at high brightness – an effect known as efficiency roll-off, for which it has been shown to be dominated by triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA). In this work, TTA of the archetype phosphorescent emitter Ir(ppy)3 is investi- gated in time-resolved photoluminescence experiments. For the widely used mixed system CBP:Ir(ppy)3, host-guest TTA – an additional unwanted TTA channel – is experimentally observed at high excitation levels. By using matrix materials with higher triplet energies, this effect is efficiently suppressed, however further studies show that the efficiency roll-off of Ir(ppy)3 is much more pronounced than predicted by a model based on Förster-type energy transfer, which marks the intrinsic limit for TTA. These results suggest that the emitter molecules show a strong tendency to form aggregates in the mixed film as the origin for enhanced TTA. Transmission electron microscopy images of Ir(ppy)3 doped mixed films give direct proof of emitter aggregates. Based on these results, two concepts are developed that improve the high brightness performance of OLEDs. In a first approach, thin intrinsic matrix interlayers are incorporated in the emission layer leading to a one-dimensional exciton confinement that suppresses exciton migration and, consequently, TTA. The second concept reduces the efficiency roll-off by using an emitter molecule with slightly differ- ent chemical structure, i.e. Ir(ppy)2(acac). Compared to Ir(ppy)3, this emitter has a much smaller ground state dipole moment, suggesting that the improved performance is a result of weaker aggregation in the mixed film. The knowledge gained in the investigation of triplet-triplet annihilation is further used to develop a novel emission layer design for white organic LEDs. It comprises three phosphorescent emitters for blue, green, and red emission embedded in a multilayer architecture. The key feature of this concept is the matrix material used for the blue emitter FIrpic: Its triplet energy is in resonance with the FIrpic excited state energy which enables low operating voltages and high power efficiencies by reducing thermal relaxation. In order to further increase the device efficiency, the OLED architecture is optically optimized using high refractive index substrates and thick electron transport layers. These devices reach efficiencies which are on par with fluorescent tubes – the current efficiency benchmark for light sources. / Diese Arbeit richtet ihren Fokus auf die Untersuchung der Leistungsfähigkeit von phosphoreszenten, Licht-emittierenden organischen Dioden (OLEDs) im Bereich hoher Betriebshelligkeiten. Phosphoreszente Emittermoleku ̈le werden in OLEDs eingesetzt, um interne Elektron-Photon Konversionseffizienzen von 100% zu erreichen. Begründet in ihrer chemischen Struktur, weisen die angeregten Triplett-Zustände dieser Emitter um Größenordnungen längere Zeitkonstanten als die Emission fluo- reszenter Materialien auf, sodass die Wahrscheinlichkeit bimolekularer Auslöschung stark ansteigt. Dies resultiert in einem deutlichen Effizienzrückgang phosphoreszenter OLEDs bei großen Leuchtdichten. Dieser als Roll-off bekannter Effekt wird bei hohen Anregungsdichten hauptsächlich durch Triplett-Triplett Annihilation (TTA) bestimmt. In der Arbeit wird TTA an einem Modellmolekül, dem phosphoreszenten Emit- ter Ir(ppy)3, in zeitaufgelösten Photolumineszenz Experimenten untersucht. Für das bekannte Emittersystem CBP:Ir(ppy)3 wird bei hohen Anregungsdichten Host-Guest TTA beobachtet, was einen zusätzlichen, ungewünschten TTA Kanal darstellt. Dieser Effekt wird durch das Verwenden von Matrix Materialien mit höherer Triplett Energie vermieden, jedoch zeigt sich in weiteren Untersuchungen, dass der Roll-off deutlich stärker ist als von einem auf Förster Energieübertrag basierendem Modell vorhergesagt, welches selbst ein intrinsisches Limit für TTA in phosphoreszenten Systemen beschreibt. Die Diskrepanz zwischen experimenteller Beobachtung und Modellvorhersage wird durch eine starke Tendenz des Emitters, Aggregate zu bilden, erklärt, was TTA deutlich verstärkt. Diese Aggregate werden mit Hilfe von Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie an Ir(ppy)3-dotierten Mischsystemen direkt nachgewiesen. Basierend auf diesen Resultaten werden zwei Konzepte entwickelt, um die Effizienz phosphoreszenter Systeme bei hohen Helligkeiten zu verbessern. Im ersten Ansatz werden dünne intrinsische Schichten des Matrixmaterials in die Emissionsschicht eingebaut, was die Exzitonenbewegung in einer Raumrichtung und damit auch TTA stark unterdrückt. Das zweite Konzept reduziert den Effizienz Roll-off durch die Verwendung eines phosphoreszenten Emitters Ir(ppy)2(acac) mit einer leicht abgeänderten Molekularstruktur. Im Vergleich mit Ir(ppy)3 weist dieser ein deutlich kleineres Dipolmoment im molekularen Grundzustand auf, wodurch die Aggregation vermindert wird. Aufbauend auf den Ergebnissen der TTA wird ein neuartiges Emissionsschicht-Design für weißes Licht entwickelt. In diesem Konzept werden drei phosphoreszente Materialien für blaue, grüne und rote Farbe in eine Vielschicht-Architektur eingebracht. Das Hauptmerkmal der Emissionsschicht ist die Wahl des Matrix-Materials für dem blauen Emitter FIrpic: Seine Triplett Energie liegt resonant zu dem FIrpic Triplett Zustand, wodurch niedrige Betriebsspannungen und hohe Leistungseffizienzen ermöglicht werden, da die thermische Relaxierung reduziert wird. Um die Ef- fizienz dieser weißen OLEDs weiter zu erhöhen, wird die entwickelte OLED Architektur zusätzlich durch die Verwendung von hochbrechenden Substraten und dicken Elektronen-Transportschichten optisch optimiert. Bei beleuchtungsrelevanten Helligkeiten erreichen diese OLEDs das Effizienzniveau von Leuchtstoffröhren – letztere stellen heute den Effizienz-Maßstab dar.

No description available.

Photosensitizing effects of xenobiotics are of increasing concern in public health since modern lifestyle often associates sunlight exposure with the presence of chemical substances in the skin. An important number of chemicals like perfumes, sunscreen components, or therapeutic agents have been reported as photosensitizers. In this context, a considerable effort has been made to design a model system for photosafety assessment. Indeed, screening for phototoxicity is necessary at the early phase of drug discovery process, even before introducing drugs and chemicals into clinical therapy, to prevent undesired photoreactions in humans. In the case of new pharmaceuticals, their phototoxic potential has to be tested when they absorb in the regions corresponding to the solar spectrum, that is, for wavelengths >290 nm. So, there is an obvious need for a screening strategy based on in vitro experiments. The goal of the present thesis was the photochemical study of different photoactive drugs to investigate the key molecular aspects responsible for their photosensitivity side effects. In a first stage, rosuvastatin was considered in chapter 3 as representative compound of the statin family. This lipid-lowering drug, also known as “superstatin”, contains a 2-vinylbiphenyl-like moiety and has been previously described to decompose under solar irradiation, yielding stable dihydrophenanthrene analogues. During photophysical characterization of rosuvastatin, only a long-lived transient at ca. 550 nm was observed and assigned to the primary photocyclization intermediate. Thus, the absence of detectable triplet-triplet absorption and the low yield of fluorescence ruled out the role of the parent drug as an efficient sensitizer. In this context, the attention was placed on the rosuvastatin main photoproduct (ppRSV). Indeed, the photobehavior of this dihydrophenanthrene-like compound presented the essential components needed for an efficient biomolecule photosensitizer i.e. (i) a high intersystem crossing quantum yield (ΦISC =0.8), (ii) a triplet excited state energy of ca. 67 kcal mol−1 , and (iii) a quantum yield of singlet oxygen formation (Φ∆) of 0.3. Furthermore, laser flash photolysis studies revealed a triplet-triplet energy transfer from the triplet excited state of ppRSV to thymidine, leading to the formation of cyclobutane thymidine dimers, an important type of DNA lesion. Finally, tryptophan was used as a probe to investigate the Type I and/or Type II character of ppRSV-mediated oxidation. In this way, both an electron transfer process giving rise to the tryptophanyl radical and a singlet oxygen mediated oxidation were observed. On the basis of the obtained results, rosuvastatin, through its major photoproduct ppRSV, should be considered as a potential sensitizer. Then, itraconazole (ITZ), a broad-spectrum antifungal agent, was chosen as main character of chapter 4. Its photochemical properties were investigated in connection with its reported skin photosensitivity disorders. Steady state photolysis, fluorescence and phosphorescence experiments were performed to understand ITZ photoreactivity in biological media. The drug is unstable under UVB irradiation, suffering a primary dehalogenation of the 2,4-dichlorophenyl moiety that occurs mainly at the ortho-position. In poorly H-donating solvents, as acetonitrile, the major photoproduct arises from intramolecular attack of the initially generated aryl radical to the triazole ring. In addition, reduced compounds resulting from homolytic cleavage of the C-Cl bond in ortho or para positions and subsequent Habstraction from the medium are obtained to a lesser extent. In good H-donating solvents, such as ethanol, the main photoproducts are formed by reductive dehalogenation. Furthermore, irradiation of a model dyad containing a tryptophan unit and the reactive 2,4-dichlorophenyl moiety of itraconazole leads to formation of a new covalent link between these two substructures revealing that homolysis of the C-Cl bond of ITZ can result in alkylation of reactive amino acid residues of proteins, leading to formation of covalent photoadducts. Therefore, it has been established that the key process in the photosensitization by itraconazole is cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond, which leads to aryl radicals and chlorine atoms. These highly reactive species might be responsible for extensive free radical-mediated biological damage, including lipid peroxidation or photobinding to proteins. In chapter 5, photobehavior of imatinib (IMT) was addressed. This is a promising tyrosine kinase inhibitor used in the treatment of some types of human cancer, which constitutes a successful example of rational drug design based on the optimization of the chemical structure to reach an improved pharmacological activity. Cutaneous reactions, such as increased photosensitivity or pseudoporphyria, are among the most common nonhematological IMT side effects; however, the molecular bases of these clinical observations have not been unveiled yet. Thus, to gain insight into the IMT photosensitizing properties, its photobehavior was studied together with that of its potentially photoactive anilino-pyrimidine and pyridyl-pyrimidine fragments. In this context, steady-state and time resolved fluorescence, as well as laser flash photolysis experiments were run, and the DNA photosensitization potential was investigated by means of single strand breaks detection using agarose gel electrophoresis. The obtained results revealed that the drug itself and its anilino-pyrimidine fragment are not DNA-photosensitizers. By contrast, the pyridyl-pyrimidine substructure displayed a marked photogenotoxic potential, which was associated with the generation of a long-lived triplet excited state. Interestingly, this reactive species was efficiently quenched by benzanilide, another molecular fragment of IMT. Clearly, integration of the photoactive pyridyl-pyrimidine moiety in a more complex structure strongly modifies its photobehavior, which in this case is fortunate as it leads to an improved toxicological profile. Thus, on the bases of the experimental results, direct in vivo photosensitization by IMT seems unlikely. Instead, the reported photosensitivity disorders could be related to indirect processes, such as the previously suggested impairment of melanogenesis or the accumulation of endogenous porphyrins. Finally, a possible source of errors in the TEMPO/EPR method for singlet oxygen detection was analyzed. For many biological and biomedical studies, it is essential to detect the production of 1O2 and to quantify its production yield. Among the available methods, detection of the characteristic 1270 nm phosphorescence of singlet oxygen by time-resolved near infrared (TRNIR) emission constitutes the most direct and unambiguous approach. An alternative indirect method is electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) in combination with trapping. This is based on the detection of the TEMPO free radical formed after oxidation of TEMP (2,2,6,6- tetramethylpiperidine) by singlet oxygen. Although the TEMPO/EPR method has been largely employed, it can produce misleading data. This was demonstrated by the present study, where the quantum yields of singlet oxygen formation obtained by TRNIR emission and by the TEMPO/EPR method were compared for a set of well-known photosensitizers. The results revealed that the TEMPO/EPR method leads to significant overestimation of singlet oxygen yield when the singlet or triplet excited state of the photosensitizers were efficiently quenched by TEMP, acting as electron donor. In such case, generation of the TEMP+• radical cation, followed by deprotonation and reaction with molecular oxygen gives rise to a EPR detectable TEMPO signal that is not associated with singlet oxygen production. This knowledge is essential for an appropriate and error-free application of the TEMPO/EPR method in chemical, biological and medical studies. / Nardi, G. (2014). MECHANISTIC STUDIES ON THE PHOTOTOXICITY OF ROSUVASTATIN, ITRACONAZOLE AND IMATINIB [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/48535