Bygg- och anläggningsbranschens implementering av BIM har resulterat i ett ökat behov att digitaliserat relationsunderlag. Äldre relationshandlingar, som mestadels utgörs av pappersritningar, saknar digitala motsvarigheter vilket gör att insamlingar av ny information, från pappersritningar, kan bli aktuell. Terrester laserskanning (TLS) är en teknik som tillämpas för insamling av data i punktmolnsform och är en allt mer förekommande insamlingsmetod vid införskaffning av relationsunderlag. Modellering från tredimensionella punktmolnsdata är ofta komplicerad och på så vis införstått med manuellt arbete för att producera ett godtyckligt resultat. Syftet med examensarbetet var att undersöka möjligheten att skapa en CAD-modell av en tunnels ytskikt från ett punktmoln med hjälp av programvaran FME. Studieområdet är ett mindre tunnelsegment och den insamlade datamängden utgörs av tidigare framarbetat punktmoln. Punktmolnet är obearbetat och innehåller brus i form av avvikande punkter samt installations- och konstruktionsobjekt. Tidigare producerat relationsunderlag, i form av CAD-modell, tilldelades också för att möjliggöra en jämförelse mot de modeller som skapats i arbetet. FME tillhandahåller ett flertal verktyg för bearbetning av punktmoln och arbetet har omfattats av tester där de olika verktygen utvärderats. Det huvudsakliga fokuset har legat på verktyget PointCloudSurfaceBuilder, vars funktion är att rekonstruera punktmoln till en mesh. En metod för filtrering av punktmolnet utformades och utreddes också under arbetet. Flertalet försök utfördes för att testa vad som fungerade bäst och ett antal modeller av varierande kvalitet kunde skapas. Metoden Poisson i verktyget PointCloudSurfaceBuilder visade bäst resultat då den skapar en “vattentät” modell som följer punktmolnets rumsliga förhållande bättre än det tilldelade relationsunderlaget. För metoden Poisson var Maximum Depth den parameter som hade störst inverkan på resultatets kvalitet. För varje höjning med 1 i parametern Maximum Depth så ökade upplösningen kvadratiskt i varje dimension för x, y och z. De totala värdena för tidsåtgång, filstorlek och antal trianglar ökade även potentiellt med upplösningen. Värden över 9 blir svåra, om inte omöjliga, att hantera i CAD-miljöer på grund av för detaljerade data i förhållande studieområdets storlek. Därav rekommenderas 7 och 8 som parametervärden vid modellering i miljöer likartade med tunnelsegmentet. / The building and construction industries implementation of BIM has resulted in an increased need to digitalise as-built basis. Older as-built documents, which is mostly made of paper plans, are missing their digital counterparts, which makes it that collection of new information, from the paper plans, can be vital. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) is a technique that is applied for collection of data in the form of data point clouds and is a more frequent collection method for obtaining supplies of as-built. Modelling from three-dimensional point cloud data is usually a complicated matter and therefore connected with manual labour to produce an arbitrary result. The purpose with the bachelor thesis was to research the possibility to create a CAD-model of the layer of a tunnel from a point cloud with the use of a software called FME. The study area is a smaller tunnel segment and the collected data set is based from an earlier created point cloud. The point cloud is unprocessed and contains noise from deviant points and object of installations and construction. The earlier produced as-built, in form of a CAD-model, was applied as well to enable a comparison parallel to the newly created models in this thesis. FME contains several tools for handling point clouds and the work have included several tests where the different tools have been evaluated. The primary focus of the work has been to evaluate the possibilities of the tool PointCloudSurfaceBuilder, which function is to reconstruct point clouds to a mesh. A method was also created and examined to clean the point cloud from noise. Several tests were executed to see what kind of method works the best and models of different qualities were rendered. The construction method Poisson in the transformer PointCloudSurfaceBuilder produced the best results whereas it creates a “water tight” model that follows the point clouds spatial conditions in a better way than the as-built model. In the method of Poisson there is a parameter called Maximum Depth which showed the greatest impact for the quality of the result. For every increase of 1 in the parameter Maximum Depth was the resolution increased by a factor of two in every direction of x, y and z. The total values for amount of time, file size and number of triangles increased as well in a way parallel to the potential increase of the resolution. It is hard, if not impossible, to handle the models in CAD-environments above the value 9. That is because of too high detail in the data in relation to the size of the study area. Therefore, are the recommended values of the parameter 7 and 8 in case of modelling of similar environments in tunnel complexes.

Esta pesquisa apresenta os resultados obtidos com o emprego de um método físico para aumento da resistência de concretos projetados a pequenas idades. O método consiste na aplicação de gradientes elétricos ao material logo após a projeção, sendo mantido nas primeiras 5:30 h de hidratação. O comportamento mecânico do concreto projetado submetido a gradientes elétricos foi analisado em termos da resistência à compressão e módulo de elasticidade a partir da resposta de modelos estruturais e de amostras extraídas de estruturas projetadas em diferentes idades. Os modelos estruturais foram desenvolvidos para simular esforços ao concreto projetado semelhantes àqueles resultantes da interação solo-suporte em obras subterrâneas. A projeção do concreto nestes modelos ocorreu diretamente sobre o solo, permitindo assim a análise da eficiência do método sob condições de fuga de corrente elétrica para o maciço em diferentes tipos de solos. A instrumentação destes modelos permitiu analisar a eficiência do método sobre a deformabilidade do concreto projetado, sendo medidas as evoluções de deformações elásticas e deformações de fluência ao longo do tempo bem como deformações independentes de tensões desde as primeiras horas de hidratação. Constataram-se acréscimos na resistência nas primeiras 8 h de idade do concreto projetado em projeção sobre placas de madeira e diretamente sobre o solo. O módulo de elasticidade obtido a partir da instrumentação da resposta instantânea ao carregamento também constatou melhorias pela aplicação do gradiente elétrico. A reologia do concreto projetado, a partir das parcelas de deformações instantânea, retardada e lenta foi analisada utilizando-se o modelo proposto por SCHUBERT (1988). Melhorias foram observadas na resposta em termos de deformações do concreto projetado quando submetidos ao gradiente elétrico, apresentando menores taxas de evolução de deformações lentas em resposta a carregamentos iniciados em idades inferiores a 10 h e redução da parcela de deformação permanente frente ao descarregamento. A investigação dos fatores que provocam acréscimos na resistência a pequenas idades pela aplicação de gradientes elétricos a pastas e argamassas foi realizada utilizando-se técnicas de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura e Difratometria de Raio X. Constataram-se alterações na microestrutura de argamassas submetidas a gradiente elétrico, sem alteração nos compostos hidratados. Alterações na taxa de hidratação foram evidenciadas pela comparação de padrões difratométricos entre pastas submetidas a gradientes elétricos e pastas de referência. / This work presents the results obtained by employing a physical method for the strength increase of shotcrete at early age. The method consists of applying electric gradient to the material during the first 5 hours and 30 minutes of hydration, starting immediately after spraying. The mechanical behavior of shotcrete subjected to electric gradient was evaluated at different ages in terms of unconfined compressive strength and elastic modulus obtained from the response of structural models and on samples cored from the structural models. Shotcrete structural models were constructed in order to simulate internal forces resulting from ground mass - support interaction in underground works. Shotcrete in these models was sprayed directly on soil. It was thus possible to analyse the efficiency of the method when leakage currents occur through the soil. Model instrumentation alloed to evaluate the method efficiency in terms of shotcrete deformability. The evolution of elastic and creep strains were evaluated, as well as stress-independent strains since the beginning of hydration. Strength increase during the first 8 hours of age were observed both on panels shotcreted on wooden forms and directly on soil. The elastic modulus was also obtained from the analysis of the instantaneous strain reponse to the applied load. Improvement due to electric gradient was also found this way. Shotcrete rheology in terms instantaneous, delayed and creep strains was analyzed adopting the model proposed by SCHUBERT (1988). Improvement due to the electric gradient was found with respect to each of those strain components resulting from load applied at ages lower that 10h. Permanent strain after unloading was also reduced. The investigation of the phenomena responsible for the strength increase at early age due to the application of electric gradient to cement paste and mortar was carried out with the techniques of scanning electron microscope and X-ray diffraction. Microstructure changes were found in mortar speciments subjected to electric gradient, however without any change of hydrated products. Hydration rate changes were detected from diffractometric patterns of cement pastes subjected to electric gradient.

Les vallées tunnels sont les structures de drainage d'eau de fonte les plus imposantes de l'environnement sous-glaciaire. L'inaccessibilité des milieux sous-glaciaires actuels limitent nos connaissances des mécanismes impliqués dans leurs formations, des paramètres contrôlant leur morphologie et de leurs influences sur la dynamique glaciaire. Ce travail présente une nouvelle approche expérimentale visant à mieux contraindre la formation et le fonctionnement des systèmes de vallées tunnels. Cette approche repose sur le développement d'un nouveau dispositif expérimental simulant la circulation d'eau pressurisée au sein d'un substrat poreux et perméable sous une couverture visqueuse. Les résultats des expériences menées avec ce dispositif ont permis de déterminer des relations étroites entre les paramètres du substrat et les modalités de l'écoulement d'eau sur la formation et la morphologie des vallées tunnels. Les résultats issus des expériences démontrent que ce dispositif permet de recréer des systèmes de vallées tunnels. L'étude de ces vallées expérimentales suggèrent que la topographie du substrat et la production d'eau de fonte joue un rôle primordial sur la genèse des vallées tunnels et sur leurs morphologies. Deux morphotypes de vallées tunnels ont pu être identifiés avec des morphologies et des mécanismes de formation indépendants. L'analyse de la dynamique de la calotte sus-jacente a permis de mettre en évidence un lien étroit entre le développement des vallées tunnels et la dynamique des "ice streams". L'évolution de la capacité de drainage des vallées tunnels semble contrôler la dynamique glaciaire en régulant le flux de glace transitant dans les "ice streams". / Tunnel valleys are major components of the subglacial meltwater drainage system. The inaccessibility of modern subglacial environments reduces our knowledge on the mechanisms involved in tunnel valleys formation, the parameters controlling their morphology and their influence on ice-sheet dynamics. This work presents a new experimental approach aiming to better assess the processes of tunnel valleys development. This approach relies on the development of a new experimental device simulating a pressurized water flow within a porous and permeable substratum underneath a viscous layer simulating the ice-sheet. The main results of the experiments conducted with this device have demonstrated the influence of both substratum properties and meltwater drainage on tunnel valleys formation and morphology. Using the device, we first manage to reproduce tunnel valley systems experimentally. Analyses conducted on these valleys experimental valleys suggest that the substratum topography and meltwater production play a key role on tunnel valleys genesis and morphology. Two tunnel valleys morphotypes have been identified, each one being charaterized by a unique morphology and mechanism of formation. Monitoring of the experimental ice sheet during tunnel valley formation shows close relationship between tunnel valleys development and "ice streams" dynamics. The evolution of tunnel valley drainage capacity seems to have a strong influence on ice sheet stability by regulating ice flux within "ice stream corridors".

A presente tese tem por objetivo contribuir para o conhecimento do comportamento dependente do tempo das rochas de anidrita e gipso. O maior interesse é fornecer argumentos convincentes sobre os mecanismos físicos responsáveis pelas deformações lentas observadas em algumas escavações subterrâneas realizadas em maciços dessas rochas na Europa, aspecto este que hoje está bastante confuso e escassamente estudado. A hipótese central desta pesquisa é que o comportamento dependente do tempo das rochas de anidrita e gipso deve-se parcial e/ou totalmente às propriedades reológicas (fluência) e não exclusivamente a expansão decorrente da transformação anidrita – gipso como a maioria dos autores sustenta. Este problema será analisado a partir de uma perspectiva experimental através de ensaios específicos. Os ensaios de expansão axial livre em rochas de anidrita permitiram concluir que quando submersas em água destilada, experimentam diminuição de volume por dissolução. Já as amostras de anidrita em contato com solução saturada em 'CA'SO IND.4' mostram uma relação não linear entre deformação axial e o tempo indicando uma taxa de expansão que decresce com o tempo. As taxas de expansão axial variam entre 0,3 e 2,4%/ano. A novidade é que esta expansão se deve à deposição de uma camada contínua formada por neocristais de gipso e não a expansão por hidratação da anidrita como acontece com os argilominerais. O mecanismo de transformação consiste na dissolução da anidrita e posterior precipitação do gipso em condições de sobre-saturação da solução. A transformação mineralógica acontece, na natureza, em condições propícias de temperatura e saturação da solução com íons 'CA POT.2+' e 'SO IND.4'POT.2-'. Propõe-se uma teoria alternativa sobre deformações lentas de maciços sulfáticos baseada na força de cristalização decorrente da deposição de cristais de gipso nas juntas do maciço rochoso. Propõe-se utilizar as formulações termodinâmicas propostas para expansão de concretos por crescimento de etringita e gipso. Os ensaios de fluência uniaxial sob compressão axial constante mostram que ambos os tipos de rochas sulfáticas apresentam comportamentos elasto-visco-plásticos e taxas de deformação axial e lateral da ordem de '10 POT.-12' a '10 POT.-10' 'S POT.-1'. A deflagração da fluência secundária acontece sob tensões de 4 – 6 MPa para gipsitas e de 25 – 40 MPa para anidritas. As análises sobre os possíveis mecanismos de deformação por fluência foram inconsistentes e nenhuma conclusão definitiva foi atingida. Aparentemente a baixas tensões atuariam mecanismos de difusão e dissolução por pressão. A tensões intermediárias dominariam mecanismos de deslocamentos intra e intercristalinos e a altas tensões as rochas deformariam por propagação de microfissuramento. Ensaios de fluência acoplados a sensores de emissão acústica mostram a manifestação de eventos microssísmicos que usualmente se atribuem à propagação de microfraturas mas que podem dever-se a outros mecanismos. Tanto as taxas de expansão axial como de fluência são compatíveis com as taxas de convergência medidas em algumas obras subterrâneas escavadas em maciços sulfáticos, verificando a hipótese central da pesquisa / The purpose of this thesis is to contribute for the knowledge of time-dependent behavior of sulfatic rocks of anhydrite and gypsum. Emphasis is given to provide straightforward arguments about physical mechanisms responsible for creep observed in some underground excavations in those rocks in Europe. Explanation for this phenomena is not clear yet and studies about them are still scarce. The backbone idea behind this research is that the time-dependent behavior of anhydrite and gypsum is totally or at least partially due to rheological properties, and not exclusively due to swelling resulting from the anhydritegypsum transformation. This problem was investigated experimentally with specific tests. Free swelling tests on anhydrite led to the conclusion that when immersed into distilled water, volume decrease due to dissolution is observed. Anhydrite samples in contact with a saturated solution of 'CA'SO IND.4' present a nonlinear relationship between axial strain and time, indicating swelling rate decreasing with time. Axial swelling rates vary between 0,3% and 2,4%/year. The new concept is that this swelling is due to the deposition of a continuous layer of gypsum composed by gypsum neo-crystals, and not due to hydration swelling of anhydrite, a usual with clay minerals. The transformation mechanism consists of anhydrite dissolution and later precipitation of gypsum under over-saturation condition of the solution. The mineralogical transformation takes place in nature under favorable conditions of temperature and solution saturation with 'CA POT.2+' and 'SO IND.4'POT.2-' ions. An alternative theory is proposed about creep of sulfatic rock masses based on crystallization forces resulting from the deposition of gypsum crystals in the rock masses joints. The use of thermodynamic formulations is proposed for concrete swelling due to the growth of ettringite and gypsum. Uniaxial compression creep tests show that both types of sulfatic rocks present elasto-visco-plastic behavior and axial and lateral strain rates of the order of '10 POT.-12' to '10 POT.-10' 'S POT.-1'. Triggering of secondary creep takes places under stresses of the order of 4 – 6 MPa for gypsum and 25 – 40 MPa for anhydrite. The analyses about the possible creep mechanisms were not consistent and no definite conclusion has been reached get. Apparently under low stresses diffusion and pressure dissolution mechanism dominate. Under intermediate stresses, intra- and inter crystalline displacement mechanisms seem to dominate, and under high stresses rock deform due to microcrack propagation. Creep tests monitored with acoustic emission devices show the occurrence of microseismic events attributed to microcrack propagation. Both axial swelling and creep rock are compatible with convergence rocks measured in some underground works excavated in sulfatic rock masses, following the central idea of this thesis

Les mémoires non-volatiles magnétiques à effet de couple de transfert de spin - STT-MRAM sont un nouveau type de mémoire pouvant remplacer les mémoires DRAM ou SRAM. Chaque point de mémoire STT-MRAM est une jonction tunnel magnétique sous forme d’un pilier de taille nanométrique, composée de deux couches magnétiques séparées par une barrière d'oxide. L'empilement multicouche doit être élaboré sous ultravide par épitaxie par faisceau moléculaire (M.B.E.) ou par pulvérisation cathodique (P.V.D.). Ces méthodes d’élaboration sont développées par la société Vinci Technologies (finançant ce travail de thèse par une bourse CIFRE). L’amplitude de la magnétorésistance tunnel, utilisée pour lire les informations stockées dans la mémoire, dépend de l'orientation relative des aimantations des deux couches magnétiques. Par ailleurs, l'écriture de l’information dans le dispositif est obtenue grâce à l'effet de couple de transfert de spin, qui permet la manipulation de l’aimantation en utilisant un courant polarisé. Enfin, la stabilité thermique du dispositif est donnée par la barrière en énergie séparant les deux orientations d'aimantation (vers le haut et vers le bas dans le cas d'un dispositif perpendiculaire). Pour que les STT-MRAM soient une technologie compétitive, la tension critique nécessaire au retournement de l’aimantation (tension d'écriture) ainsi que le temps de retournement doivent être réduits, tandis que la stabilité thermique doit rester suffisamment élevée pour assurer la conservation de l'information. Au cours de ma thèse, en collaboration avec Vinci Technologies, les équipements nécessaires à la croissance des couches minces composant les jonctions tunnels (M.B.E. et P.V.D.) ont été optimisées. Grâce à cela, nous avons pu obtenir des couches minces avec une anisotropie perpendiculaire (hors du plan) bien caractérisée. J'ai ensuite concentré mon étude sur les dispositifs STT-MRAM industriels (IBM et STT) présentant une aimantation perpendiculaire pour comprendre le mécanisme de retournement de l’aimantation induite par le courant. J'ai alors pu identifier les paramètres pertinents influençant la valeur de la tension de retournement et proposer des solutions pour l'abaisser tout en préservant la stabilité thermique. Grâce à une étude concernant la probabilité de retournement d'aimantation, comparée à une modélisation macrospin et micromagnétique, j'ai mis en évidence un mécanisme de retournement variable en fonction de la configuration magnétique initiale. En effet, le champ rayonné par une couche magnétique sur une autre et la forme de la jonction tunnel ont un impact important sur la manipulation de l'aimantation / Spin Transfer Torque - Magnetic Random Access Memories – STT-MRAM – are developed as a new type of memory which could replace DRAM or SRAM. In the case of STT- MRAM, each memory point is a nanopillar magnetic tunnel junction composed of two magnetic layers separated by an oxide barrier. The multilayer stack can be grown under ultra-high vacuum using Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) or Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD). Those systems are developed by the company Vinci Technologies (sponsoring this PhD work). The tunnel magnetoresistance signal which depends on the relative orientation of the two magnetizations is used to read the information stored in the device. The writing of the information in the device is realized thanks to the spin transfer torque effect, which allows magnetization manipulation using a spin current. The thermal stability of the device is given by the energy barrier separating the two magnetization orientations (up and down in the case of a perpendicular device). For STT-MRAM to be a competitive technology, the critical voltage needed for magnetization switching (writing voltage) as well as the switching time have to be reduced while the thermal stability remains high enough to ensure the retention of information. During my thesis, in collaboration with Vinci-Technologies several tools to grow thin films have been optimized. With such equipment, we were able to grow thin films with well characterized perpendicular (out-of-plane) anisotropy. I have then focused my study on industrial STT-MRAM devices (from two companies: IBM and STT) with an out-of-plane magnetization direction so as to understand the mechanism of current induced magnetization switching. By doing so, I could identify the relevant parameters influencing the switching voltage value and propose solutions to lower it while preserving thermal stability. Through a probabilistic study of magnetization reversal, coupled with macrospin and micromagnetic modeling studies, I have evidenced different switching mechanisms depending on the initial magnetic configuration. Indeed both the stray field from one magnetic layer to the other and the shape of the nanopillar have a large impact on magnetization manipulation

The growing requirements to achieve hypersonic flights, as in the case of reentry vehicles, pose a serious challenge to the designers. This demands an understanding of the features of hypersonic flow and its effect on hypersonic vehicles. Hypersonic shock tunnels are one of the most widely used facilities for the purpose of obtaining valuable design data by conducting experiments on scaled down models. They are operated by conventional shock tubes by rupturing metal diaphragms placed between the driver and driven sections of the shock tube. Shock tunnels are being extensively used in spite of some of the drawbacks they possess. Due to the varying nature of metal diaphragm rupture, reproducibility of the experiment results is difficult to obtain. Damage to model and inner surface of the shock tube can happen when the diaphragm petal breaks away from the diaphragm. Lastly the time consuming diaphragm replacement process is not desired in applications which require quick loading of shock waves on the specimen. All these disadvantages call for the replacement of the diaphragm mode of operation with a diaphragmless mode of operation for the generation of shock waves. The main objective of the present study is to design and demonstrate the working of a diaphragmless hypersonic shock tunnel. The motivation for the present study comes from the fact that the diaphragmless operation of a shock tunnel has not been reported so far in the open literature. All the research works carried out deal with diaphragmless drivers operating only a shock tube. In the present work, the conventional metal diaphragm is substituted by fast acting pneumatic valves which serve the purpose of quickly opening the driven section of the shock tube to allow the driver gas to rush in, resulting in the formation of a shock wave. To design a diaphragmless driver, a detailed study of the shock formation process is accomplished which helps in understanding the effect of valve opening time on the shock formation distance. Also the theoretical basis for the design of a pneumatic cylinder is understood. Following the theoretical studies, three types of diaphragmless drivers are designed and tested. The first setup incorporates a rubber membrane, which acts as a valve. The rubber membrane when bulged closes the mouth of the driven section and on retraction the driven section is opened to the driver gas. The second and the third setups utilise two different types of double acting pneumatic cylinders. Experimental results of the three diaphragmless drivers operating a shock tube are analysed and compared with the ideal shock tube theory. Better repeatability in terms of shock Mach number is shown with all three diaphragmless shock tubes when compared with a conventionally operated shock tube. Finally, the best among the three systems is identified to operate the hypersonic shock tunnel 2 (HST2) facility of the Shock Waves laboratory, IISc. Demonstration of the working of the diaphragmless shock tunnel is shown by performing heat transfer measurements on a 3 mm backward facing step flat plate model. The experimental results are compared with those obtained in a conventional shock tunnel. CFD studies on diaphragmless shock tube model are done to have an idea on the flow in the shock tube there by identifying the shock formation distance. ANSYS-CFX package is used for this purpose. Further, results from the numerical simulation of hypersonic flow over the backward facing step model are compared with the experimental results thus validating the code.

ABSTRACT EFFECT OF INITIAL SUPPORT OF EXCAVATION ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF CUT AND COVER STRUCTURES Rezaei, Hamidreza M.Sc., Department of Civil Engineering Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Alp Caner MAY 2011, 66 pages The effect of the initial support and its embedment depth, on the seismic performance of cut and cover tunnels is investigated. Cut and cover construction is one of the fastest and cheapest methods for constructing rectangular shallow tunnels. Construction of cut and cover structure in soil usually starts with installation of the initial support of excavation system, which may consists of rigid type of initial supports such as tangent piles or secant piles. These systems usually remain in place after completion of the final structure. However, to simplify the design, it is a common practice to ignore the contribution of initial support. In this study the effect of initial support of excavation on the seismic performance of cut and cover tunnels is investigated by means of a detailed dynamic finite element analysis. Three different tunnel geometries, three soil types and three acceleration histories were considered Results of the study show that depending on the soil stiffness (soft, medium, or stiff soil), the dynamic response of the tunnel deformations are affected significantly by the initial support of excavation. The effect of the initial support diminishes as the quality of the soil improves. Therefore, dynamic analyses are recommended for the final design of this type of structures especially in soft soils.

Knowledge of flow separation is very essential for proper understanding of both external and internal aerothermodynamics of bodies. Because of unique flow features such as thick boundary layers, merged shock layers, strong entropy layers, flow separation in the flow field of bodies at hypersonic speeds, is both complex as well as interesting. The problem of flow separation is further complicated at very high stagnation enthalpies because of the real gas effects. Notwithstanding the plethora of information available in open literature even for simple geometric configurations the experimentally determined locations of flow separation and re-attachment points do not match well with the results from the computational studies even at hypersonic laminar flow conditions. In this backdrop the main aim of the present study is to generate a reliable experimental database of classical separated flow features around generic configurations at hypersonic laminar flow conditions. In the present study, flow visualization using high speed camera, surface convective heat transfer rate measurements using platinum thin film sensors, and direct skin friction measurements using PZT crystals have been carried out for characterizing the separated flow field around backward facing step, double cone and double wedge models. The numerical simulations by solving the Navier-Stokes equations have also been carried out to complement the experimental studies. The generic models selected in the present study are simple configurations, where most of the classical hypersonic separated flow features of two-dimensional, axi-symmetric and three dimensional flow fields can be observed. All the experiments are carried out in IISc hypersonic shock tunnel (HST2) at Mach 5.75 and 7.6. For present study, helium and air have been used as the driver and test gases respectively. The high speed schlieren flow visualization is carried out on backward facing step (2 and 3 mm step height), double cone (semi-apex angles of 150/350 and 250/680) and double wedge (semi-apex angles of 150/350) models by using high speed camera (Phantom 7.1). From the visualized shockwave structure in the flow field the flow reattachment point after separation has been clearly identified for backward facing step, double cone and double wedge models at hypersonic Mach numbers while the separation point could not be clearly identified because of the low free stream density in shock tunnels. However the flow visualization studies helped clearly identifying the region of flow separation on the model. Based on the results from the flow visualization studies both the physical location and distribution of platinum thin film gauges was finalized for the heat transfer rate measurements. Surface heat transfer rates along the length of two backward facing step (2 and 3 mm step height) models have been measured using platinum thin film gauges deposited on Macor substrate. The Eckert reference temperature method is used along the flat plate for predicting the heat flux distribution. Theoretical analysis of heat flux distribution down stream of the backward facing step model has been carried out using Gai’s dimensional analysis. The study reveals for the first time that at moderate stagnation enthalpy levels (~2 MJ/kg) the hypersonic separated flow around a backward facing step reattaches rather smoothly without any sudden spikes in the measured values of surface heat transfer rates. Based on the measured surface heating rates on the backward facing step, the reattachment distance was estimated to be approximately 10 and 8 step heights downstream of 2 and 3 mm step respectively at nominal Mach number of 7.6. Convective surface heat transfer experiments have also been carried out on axi-symmetric double cone models (semi-apex angles of 15/35 and 25/68), which is analogous to the Edney’s shock interactions of Type VI and Type IV respectively. The flow is unsteady on the double cone model of 25/68 and measured heat flux is not constant. The heat transfer experiments were also carried out on the three-dimensional double wedge model (semi-apex angles of 15/35). The separation and reattachment points have been clearly identified from the experimental heat transfer measurements. It has been observed that the measured heat transfer rates on the double wedge model is less than the double cone model (semi-apex angles of 150/350) for the identical experimental conditions at the same gauge locations. This difference could be due to the three-dimensional entropy relieving effects of double wedge model. PZT-5H piezoelectric based skin friction gauge is developed and used for direct skin friction measurements in hypersonic shock tunnel (HST2). The bare piezoelectric PZT-5H elements (5 mm × 5 mm with thickness of 0.75 mm) polarized in the shear mode have been used as a skin friction gauge by operating the sensor in the parallel shear mode direction. The natural frequency of the skin friction sensor is ~80 kHz, which is suitable for impulse facilities. The direct skin friction measurements are carried out on flat plate, backward facing step (2 mm step height) and double wedge models. The measured value of skin friction coefficient (integrated over an area of 25 sq. mm; sensor surface area) at a distance of 23 mm from the leading edge of the sharp leading edge backward facing step model is found to be ~ 0.0043 while it decreases to ~ 0.003 at a distance of 43 mm from the leading edge at a stagnation enthalpy of ~ 2MJ/kg. The measured skin friction matches with the Eckert reference temperature within ± 10%. The skin friction coefficient is also measured on the double wedge at a distance of 73 mm from the tip of the first wedge along the surface and is found to be 4.56 × 10-3. Viscous flow numerical simulations are carried out on two-dimensional backward facing step, axi-symmetric double cone and three-dimensional double wedge models using ANSYS-CFX 5.7 package. Navier-Stokes Simulations are carried out at Mach 5.75 and 7.6 using second order accurate (both in time and space) high resolution scheme. The flow is assumed to be laminar and steady throughout the model length except on the double cone (semi-apex angles of 250/680) model configuration, which represents the unsteady flow geometry. Analogous Edney Type VI and Type IV shock interactions are observed on double cone, double wedge (semi-apex angles of 150/350) and double cone (semi-apex angles of 250/680) models respectively from the CFD results. Experimentally measured convective heat transfer rates on the above models are compared with the numerical simulation results. The numerical simulation results matches well with the experimental heat transfer data in the attached flow regions. Considerable differences are observed between the measured surface heat transfer rates and numerical simulations both in the separated flow region and on the second cone/wedge surfaces. The separation and reattachment points can be clearly identified from both experimental measurements and numerical simulations. The results from the numerical simulations are also compared with results from the high speed flow visualization experiments. The experimental database of surface convective heating rates, direct skin friction coefficient and shockwave structure in laminar hypersonic flow conditions will be very useful for validating CFD codes

Hypersonic vehicles are exposed to severe heating loads during their flight in the atmosphere. In order to minimize the heating problem, a variety of cooling techniques are presently available for hypersonic blunt bodies. Introduction of a forward-facing cavity in the nose tip of a blunt body configuration of hypersonic vehicle is one of the most simple and attractive methods of reducing the convective heating rates on such a vehicle. In addition to aerodynamic heating, the overall drag force experienced by vehicles flying at hypersonic speeds is predominate due to formation of strong shock waves in the flow. Hence, the effective management of heat transfer rate and aerodynamic drag is a primary element to the success of any hypersonic vehicle design. So, precise information on both aerodynamic forces and heat transfer rates are essential in deciding the performance of the vehicle. In order to address the issue of both forces and heat transfer rates, right kind of measurement techniques must be incorporated in the ground-based testing facilities for such type of body configurations. Impulse facilities are the only devices that can simulate high altitude flight conditions. Uncertainties in test flow conditions of impulse facilities are some of the critical issues that essentially affect the final experimental results. Hence, more reliable and carefully designed experimental techniques/methodologies are needed in impulse facilities for generating experimental data, especially at hypersonic Mach numbers. In view of the above, an experimental program has been initiated to develop novel techniques of measuring both the aerodynamic forces and surface heat transfer rates. In the present investigation, both aerodynamic forces and surface heat transfer rates are measured over the test models at hypersonic Mach numbers in IISc hypersonic shock tunnel HST-2, having an effective test time of 800 s. The aerodynamic coefficients are measured with a miniature type accelerometer based balance system where as platinum thin film sensors are used to measure the convective heat transfer rates over the surface of the test model. An internally mountable accelerometer based balance system (three and six-component) is used for the measurement of aerodynamic forces and moment coefficients acting on the different test models (i.e., blunt cone with after body, blunt cone with after body and frustum, blunt cone with after body-frustum-triangular fins and sharp cone with after body-frustum-triangular fins), flying at free stream Mach numbers of 5.75 and 8 in hypersonic shock tunnel. The main principle of this design is that the model along with the internally mounted accelerometer balance system are supported by rubber bushes and there-by ensuring unrestrained free floating conditions of the model in the test section during the flow duration. In order to get a better performance from the accelerometer balance system, the location of accelerometers plays a vital role during the initial design of the balance. Hence, axi-symmetric finite element modeling (FEM) of the integrated model-balance system for the missile shaped model has been carried out at 0° angle of attack in a flow Mach number of 8. The drag force of a model was determined using commercial package of MSC/NASTRAN and MSC/PATRAN. For test flow duration of 800 s, the neoprene type rubber with Young’s modulus of 3 MPa and material combinations (aluminum and stainless steel material used as the model and balance) were chosen. The simulated drag acceleration (finite element) from the drag accelerometer is compared with recorded acceleration-time history from the accelerometer during the shock tunnel testing. The agreement between the acceleration-time history from finite-element simulation and measured response from the accelerometer is very good within the test flow domain. In order to verify the performance of the balance, tests were carried out on similar standard AGARD model configurations (blunt cone with cylinder and blunt cone with cylinder-frustum) and the results indicated that the measured values match very well with the AGARD model data and theoretically estimated values. Modified Newtonian theory is used to calculate the aerodynamic force coefficient analytically for various angles of attack. Convective surface heat transfer rate measurements are carried out by using vacuum sputtered platinum thin film sensors deposited on ceramic substrate (Macor) inserts which in turn are embedded on the metallic missile shaped body. Investigations are carried out on a model with and without fin configurations in HST-2 at flow Mach number of 5.75 and 8 with a stagnation enthalpy of 2 MJ/kg for zero degree angle of attack. The measured heating rates for the missile shaped body (i.e., with fin configuration) are lower than the predicted stagnation heating rates (Fay-Riddell expression) and the maximum difference is about 8%. These differences may be due to the theoretical values of velocity gradient used in the empirical relation. The experimentally measured values are expressed in terms of normalized heat transfer rates, Stanton numbers and correlated Stanton numbers, compared with the numerically estimated results. From the results, it is inferred that the location of maximum heating occurs at stagnation point which corresponds to zero velocity gradient. The heat-transfer ratio (q1/Qo)remains same in the stagnation zone of the model when the Mach number is increased from 5.75 to 8. At the corners of the blunt cone, the heat transfer rate doesn’t increase (or) fluctuate and the effects are negligible at two different Mach numbers (5.75 and 8). On the basis of equivalent total enthalpy, the heat-transfer rate with fin configuration (i.e., at junction of cylinder and fins) is slightly higher than that of the missile model without fin. Attempts have also been made to evaluate the feasibility of using forward facing cavity as probable technique to reduce the heat transfer rate and to study its effect on aerodynamic coefficients on a 41° apex angle missile shaped body, in hypersonic shock tunnel at a free stream Mach number of 8. The forward-facing circular cavities with two different diameters of 6 and 12 mm are chosen for the present investigations. Experiments are carried out at zero degree angle of attack for heat transfer measurements. About 10-25 % reduction in heat transfer rates is observed with cavity at gauge locations close to stagnation region, whereas the reduction in surface heat transfer rate is between 10-15 % for all other gauge locations (which is slightly downstream of the cavity) compared with the model without cavity. In order to understand the influence of forward facing cavities on force coefficients, measurement of aerodynamic forces and moment coefficients are also carried out on a missile shaped body at angles of attack. The same six component balance is also being used for subsequent investigation of force measurement on a missile shaped body with forward facing cavity. Overall drag reductions of up to 5 % is obtained for a cavity of 6 mm diameter, where as, for the 12 mm cavity an increase in aerodynamic drag is observed (up to about 10%). The addition of cavity resulted in a slight increase in the missile L/D ratio and did not significantly affect the missile lateral components. In summary, the designed balances are found to be suitable for force measurements on different test models in flows of duration less than a millisecond. In order to compliment the experimental results, axi-symmetric, Navier-Stokes CFD computations for the above-defined models are carried out for various angles of attack using a commercial package CFX-Ansys 5.7. The experimental free stream conditions obtained from the shock tunnel are used for the boundary conditions in the CFD simulation. The fundamental aerodynamic coefficients and heat transfer rates of experimental results are shown to be in good agreement with the predicted CFD. In order to have a feeling of the shock structure over test models, flow visualization experiments have been carried out by using the Schlieren technique at flow Mach numbers of 5.75 and 8. The visualized shock wave pattern around the test model consists of a strong bow shock which is spherical in shape and symmetrical over the forebody of the cone. Experimentally measured shock stand-off distance compare well with the computed value as well as the theoretically estimated value using Van Dyke’s theory. These flow visualization experiments have given a factual proof to the quality of flow in the tunnel test section.

Hypersonic flow is both fascinating and intriguing mainly because of presence of strong entropy and viscous interactions in the flow field. Notwithstanding the tremendous advancements in numerical modeling in the last decade separated hypersonic flow still remains an area where considerable differences are observed between experiments and numerical results. Lack of reliable data base of surface static pressures with good spatial resolution in hypersonic separated flow field is one of the main motivations for the present study. The experiments in hypersonic shock tunnels has an advantage compared to wind tunnels for simulating the total energy content of the flow in addition to the Mach and Reynolds numbers. However the useful test time in shock tunnels is of the order of few milliseconds. Hence in shock tunnel experiments it is essential to have pressure measurement devices which has special features such as small in size, faster response time and the sensors in array form with improved spatial resolutions. Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) is an emerging technology, which holds lot of promise in these types of applications. In view of the above requirement, MEMS based pressure sensor array was developed to measure the static pressure distribution. The study is comprised of two parts: one is on the development of MEMS based pressure sensor array, which can be used for hypersonic application and other is on experimental static pressure measurement using MEMS based sensors in separated hypersonic flow over a backward facing step model. Initially a static pressure sensor array with 25 sensors was developed. The static calibration of sensor array was carried out to characterize the sensor array for various characteristic parameters. The preliminary experimental study with cluster of 25 MEMS sensor array mounted on the flat plate did not provide reliable and repeatable results, but gave valuable inputs on the typical problems of using MEMS sensors in short duration hypersonic ground test facilities like shock tunnels. Incidentally, to the best of our knowledge this is first report on use of MEMS based pressure sensors in hypersonic shock tunnel. Later cluster of 5 sensor array was developed with improved electronic packaging and surface finish. The experiments were conducted with flat plate by mounting 5 sensor array shows good agreement in static pressure measurement compared with standard sensors. In the second part of the study a backward facing step model, which simulates the typical gasdynamic flow features associated with hypersonic flow separation is designed. Backward facing step model with step height of 3 mm was mounted with sensor array along the length of model. Just after the step, static pressure measurements were carried out with MEMS sensors. It is important to note that, in the space available in backward facing step model we could mount only one conventional Kulite pressure transducer. The experiments were conducted at Mach number of 6.3 and at stagnation enthalpy of 1.5 MJ/kg in hypersonic shock tunnel (HST-5) at IISc. Based on the static pressure measurement on backward facing step, the location of separation and reattachment points were clearly identified. The static pressure values show that reattachment of flow takes place at about 7 step heights. Numerical simulations were carried out using commercial CFD code, FLUENT for flat plate and backward facing step models to compliment the experiments. The experimental tests results match well with the illustrative numerical simulations results.