Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:18:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 antonio davi barbosa.pdf: 7758896 bytes, checksum: ca05d091a1db99ebc27e5221e6137f79 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-09-24 / The present work aims to analyse the durability parameters of the shotcrete, comparing the dry and wet projection systems, of the concrete resulting from the projection in plates and from the test specimens extracted from the tunnels structures of the North-South Railway, tract 01, in Anápolis-GO. This work considers an experimental research concerning the shotcrete behavior for dry-mix and wet-mix projection systems, by using testing indicators of the main durability parameters coming from national and international specifications. So, the experimental program involves a comparative assessment among the projection systems of current use in shotcrete, considering the comparative analysis between projected plates (control) and extracted test specimens from the tunnels on what refers to meeting the requirements related to durability. Therefore, the experimental program showed as independent variables: type of projection system (whether by means of dry-mix or wet-mix shotcrete) and the extraction of test specimen (from the control plates or from the tunnels structure). For each type of projection (dry-mix and wet-mix shotcrete), three plates were cast (normally used for concrete technological control) in conditions similar to the work-site, with the test specimens extraction been carried out according to pre-established ages. Eight test specimens were extracted from the just-builts tunnels generating thus samples to the durability associated tests, such as: capillary water absorption, immersion water absorption, concrete electric resistivity, water penetration under pressure, penetrability of chloride ions and concrete compressive strenght. Test specimens extracted from the tunnels and the from the plates were also submitted to testings of compressive strenght and mix-proportion reconstruction. The concrete extracted from tunnels showed worse results comparing to the parameters expected from the projected concrete requirements for road and rail tunnels, and it also demonstrated results which were inferior to the ones obtained from the plates. From a general assessment view, we could verify losses of durability properties of the shotcrete extracted from tunnels in reference to the projected plates. / O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar os parâmetros de durabilidade do concreto projetado, comparando os sistemas de projeção via seca e via úmida, dos concretos resultantes da projeção em placas e dos testemunhos extraídos das estruturas dos túneis da Ferrovia Norte-Sul, trecho 01, em Anápolis-GO. Este trabalho contempla um estudo experimental de análise do comportamento de concretos projetados por via seca e úmida, através de ensaios indicadores dos principais parâmetros de durabilidade, constantes das especificações nacionais e internacionais. O programa experimental envolve, portanto, a avaliação entre os sistemas de projeção de uso corrente em concreto projetado, considerando a análise comparativa entre as placas projetadas (de controle) e os testemunhos extraídos dos túneis, no que se refere ao atendimento aos requisitos relativos à durabilidade. Para tanto, o programa experimental teve como variáveis independentes: tipo de sistema de projeção (se por via seca ou por via úmida) e a extração dos corpos-de-prova de concreto (da placa ou do túnel). Para cada tipo de projeção (via seca e via úmida) foram moldadas três placas (normalmente utilizadas para os fins de controle tecnológico do concreto) em condições similares às da obra, tendo-se em seguida, nas idades preestabelecidas, executado-se a extração de corpos-de-prova. Foram também extraídos oito testemunhos dos túneis executados, gerando, assim, corpos-de-prova submetidos aos ensaios balizadores dos parâmetros de durabilidade adotados neste estudo, a saber: absorção de água por capilaridade, absorção por imersão e fervura, resistividade elétrica, penetração de água sob pressão, penetrabilidade de íons cloreto e resistência à compressão axial. Contribuíram também para a caracterização do material os corpos-de-prova extraídos dos túneis e das placas, que foram submetidos a ensaios de resistência à compressão axial e de reconstituição de traço. Os concretos extraídos dos túneis mostraram resultados abaixo dos parâmetros para os resultados esperados dos requisitos de concreto projetado para os túneis rodo-ferroviários, e ainda com resultados inferiores aos resultados obtidos das placas. Numa avaliação geral, constatou-se perdas de propriedades de durabilidade do concreto projetado extraídos dos túneis em referência aos das placas projetadas.

A presente tese tem por objetivo contribuir para o conhecimento do comportamento dependente do tempo das rochas de anidrita e gipso. O maior interesse é fornecer argumentos convincentes sobre os mecanismos físicos responsáveis pelas deformações lentas observadas em algumas escavações subterrâneas realizadas em maciços dessas rochas na Europa, aspecto este que hoje está bastante confuso e escassamente estudado. A hipótese central desta pesquisa é que o comportamento dependente do tempo das rochas de anidrita e gipso deve-se parcial e/ou totalmente às propriedades reológicas (fluência) e não exclusivamente a expansão decorrente da transformação anidrita – gipso como a maioria dos autores sustenta. Este problema será analisado a partir de uma perspectiva experimental através de ensaios específicos. Os ensaios de expansão axial livre em rochas de anidrita permitiram concluir que quando submersas em água destilada, experimentam diminuição de volume por dissolução. Já as amostras de anidrita em contato com solução saturada em 'CA'SO IND.4' mostram uma relação não linear entre deformação axial e o tempo indicando uma taxa de expansão que decresce com o tempo. As taxas de expansão axial variam entre 0,3 e 2,4%/ano. A novidade é que esta expansão se deve à deposição de uma camada contínua formada por neocristais de gipso e não a expansão por hidratação da anidrita como acontece com os argilominerais. O mecanismo de transformação consiste na dissolução da anidrita e posterior precipitação do gipso em condições de sobre-saturação da solução. A transformação mineralógica acontece, na natureza, em condições propícias de temperatura e saturação da solução com íons 'CA POT.2+' e 'SO IND.4'POT.2-'. Propõe-se uma teoria alternativa sobre deformações lentas de maciços sulfáticos baseada na força de cristalização decorrente da deposição de cristais de gipso nas juntas do maciço rochoso. Propõe-se utilizar as formulações termodinâmicas propostas para expansão de concretos por crescimento de etringita e gipso. Os ensaios de fluência uniaxial sob compressão axial constante mostram que ambos os tipos de rochas sulfáticas apresentam comportamentos elasto-visco-plásticos e taxas de deformação axial e lateral da ordem de '10 POT.-12' a '10 POT.-10' 'S POT.-1'. A deflagração da fluência secundária acontece sob tensões de 4 – 6 MPa para gipsitas e de 25 – 40 MPa para anidritas. As análises sobre os possíveis mecanismos de deformação por fluência foram inconsistentes e nenhuma conclusão definitiva foi atingida. Aparentemente a baixas tensões atuariam mecanismos de difusão e dissolução por pressão. A tensões intermediárias dominariam mecanismos de deslocamentos intra e intercristalinos e a altas tensões as rochas deformariam por propagação de microfissuramento. Ensaios de fluência acoplados a sensores de emissão acústica mostram a manifestação de eventos microssísmicos que usualmente se atribuem à propagação de microfraturas mas que podem dever-se a outros mecanismos. Tanto as taxas de expansão axial como de fluência são compatíveis com as taxas de convergência medidas em algumas obras subterrâneas escavadas em maciços sulfáticos, verificando a hipótese central da pesquisa / The purpose of this thesis is to contribute for the knowledge of time-dependent behavior of sulfatic rocks of anhydrite and gypsum. Emphasis is given to provide straightforward arguments about physical mechanisms responsible for creep observed in some underground excavations in those rocks in Europe. Explanation for this phenomena is not clear yet and studies about them are still scarce. The backbone idea behind this research is that the time-dependent behavior of anhydrite and gypsum is totally or at least partially due to rheological properties, and not exclusively due to swelling resulting from the anhydritegypsum transformation. This problem was investigated experimentally with specific tests. Free swelling tests on anhydrite led to the conclusion that when immersed into distilled water, volume decrease due to dissolution is observed. Anhydrite samples in contact with a saturated solution of 'CA'SO IND.4' present a nonlinear relationship between axial strain and time, indicating swelling rate decreasing with time. Axial swelling rates vary between 0,3% and 2,4%/year. The new concept is that this swelling is due to the deposition of a continuous layer of gypsum composed by gypsum neo-crystals, and not due to hydration swelling of anhydrite, a usual with clay minerals. The transformation mechanism consists of anhydrite dissolution and later precipitation of gypsum under over-saturation condition of the solution. The mineralogical transformation takes place in nature under favorable conditions of temperature and solution saturation with 'CA POT.2+' and 'SO IND.4'POT.2-' ions. An alternative theory is proposed about creep of sulfatic rock masses based on crystallization forces resulting from the deposition of gypsum crystals in the rock masses joints. The use of thermodynamic formulations is proposed for concrete swelling due to the growth of ettringite and gypsum. Uniaxial compression creep tests show that both types of sulfatic rocks present elasto-visco-plastic behavior and axial and lateral strain rates of the order of '10 POT.-12' to '10 POT.-10' 'S POT.-1'. Triggering of secondary creep takes places under stresses of the order of 4 – 6 MPa for gypsum and 25 – 40 MPa for anhydrite. The analyses about the possible creep mechanisms were not consistent and no definite conclusion has been reached get. Apparently under low stresses diffusion and pressure dissolution mechanism dominate. Under intermediate stresses, intra- and inter crystalline displacement mechanisms seem to dominate, and under high stresses rock deform due to microcrack propagation. Creep tests monitored with acoustic emission devices show the occurrence of microseismic events attributed to microcrack propagation. Both axial swelling and creep rock are compatible with convergence rocks measured in some underground works excavated in sulfatic rock masses, following the central idea of this thesis

Cette thèse s'inscrit dans la continuation du travail de Younes Achkire, consacré au contrôle actif des ponts haubanés. Elle traite de l'implémentation d'un système de contrôle actif sur des maquettes de structures câblées. Deux types de structures sont étudiés expérimentalement: les ponts haubanés et les treillis spatiaux. Après une brève introduction sur l'usage du contrôle actif dans ces domaines, le chapitre 2 traite numériquement des mécanismes d'interaction entre le câble et la structure. Au chapitre 3, nous présentons la stratégie de contrôle que nous utilisons pour stabiliser une structure câblée: il s'agit d'un contrôle décentralisé, basé sur des paires capteur/actionneur colocalisées, placées au niveau des ancrages des câbles, chacune équipée d'un contrôleur Intégral Force Feedback. Nous présentons une théorie linéaire simplifiée permettant de dimensionner le système et de prévoir son efficacité. Elle est illustrée sur un exemple, et nous discutons de la validité de certaines hypothèses simplificatrices. Le chapitre 4 est consacré au contrôle actif des ponts haubanés. Nous y présentons 2 maquettes. La première, de petite taille (3m) représente un pylône de pont haubané en construction. Elle est équipée d'actionneurs piézoélectriques. La seconde, installée au Centre Commun de Recherche d'Ispra (Italie), mesure 30m de long, et est équipée d'actionneurs hydrauliques. Les expériences réalisées sur ces maquettes ont démontré l'efficacité du contrôle et la fiabilité de la théorie prédictive. Le contrôle du flottement des ponts est traité sur un exemple numérique. Le chapitre 5 relate nos expériences d'amortissement actif des treillis spatiaux. Deux structures ont été étudiées: une colonne en treillis équipée de 3 câbles actifs, et une structure triédrique suspendue à des cordons élastiques pour simuler l'absence de gravité, également munie de câbles actifs. Deux concepts d'actionneur piézoélectrique ont été testés. Nous avons ensuite examiné le problème de la saturation des actionneurs, et celui du contrôle actif des microvibrations (~10nm) d'une structure câblée. Le chapitre 6 conclut ce travail, en souligne les aspects originaux et donne quelques perspectives de développement. / Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

With the age of hypersonic flight imminent just beyond the horizon, researchers are working hard at designing work-arounds for all the major problems as well as the minor quirks associated with it. One such issue, seemingly innocuous but one that could be potentially deadly, is the problem of interference heating due to surface protuberances. Although an ideal design of the external surfaces of a high-speed aircraft dictates complete smoothness to reduce drag, this is not always possible in reality. Control surfaces, sheet joints, cable protection pads etc. generate surface discontinuities of varying geometries, in the form of both protrusions as well as cavities. These discontinuities are most often small in dimension, comparable to the local boundary layer thickness at that location. Such protuberances always experience high rates of heat transfer, and therefore should be appropriately shielded. However, thermal shielding of the protrusions alone is not a full solution to the problem at hand. The interference caused to the boundary layer by the flow causes the generation of local hot spots in the vicinity of the protuberances, which should be properly mapped and adequately addressed. The work presented in this thesis aims at locating and measuring the heat flux values at these hot spots near the protrusions, and possibly formulating empirical correlations to predict the hot spot heat flux for a given set of flow conditions and protrusion geometry. Experimental investigations were conducted on a flat plate model and a cone model, with interchangeable sharp and blunt nose tips, with attached 3D protuberances. Platinum thin-film sensors were placed around the protrusion so that the heat fluxes could be measured in its vicinity and the hottest spot located. These experiments were carried out at five different hypersonic free stream flow conditions generated using two shock tunnels, one of the conventional type, and the other of the free-piston driven type. The geometry of the protrusions, i.e., the height and the deflection angle, was also parametrically varied to study its effect on the hot spot heat flux. The results thus obtained for the flat plate case were compared to existing correlations in the open literature from a similar previous study at a much higher Reynolds number range. Since a mismatch was observed between the results of the current experiments and the existing correlations, a new empirical correlation has been developed to predict the hot spot heat flux, that is valid within the range of flow conditions studied here. A similar attempt was made for the case of the cone model, for which no previous correlations exist in the open literature. However, a global correlation covering the entire range of flow conditions used here could not be formed. A correlation that is valid for just one out of the five flow conditions used here is presented for the cones with sharp and blunt nose tips separately. Schlieren flow visualization was carried out to obtain a better understanding of the shock structures near the protuberances on both models. For most cases, where the protrusion height and deflection angle were large enough to cause flow separation immediately upstream of the protuberance, a separation shock was manifested which deflected some part of the boundary layer above the protuberance, while the rest of the fluid in the boundary layer entered a recirculating region in the separated zone before escaping to the side. Some preliminary computational analysis was conducted which confirmed this qualitatively. However, the quantitative match of surface heat flux between the simulations and experiments were not encouraging. Schlieren visualization revealed that for the flat plate case, the foot of the separation shock was located at a distance of 10.5 to 12 times the protrusion height ahead of it, whereas in the case of the sharp cone, it was at a distance of 9 to 10.5 times the protrusion height. The unsteady nature of the separation shock was also captured and addressed. Some preliminary experiments on boundary layer tripping were also conducted, the results of which have been presented here. From this analysis, it has become evident that a single global correlation cannot be formed which could be used for a wide range of flow conditions to predict the hot spot heat flux in interference interactions. The entire range of conditions that may be encountered during hypersonic flight has to be broken down into sections, and the interference heating pattern should be studied in each of these sections individually. By doing so, a series of different correlations can be formed at the varying flow conditions which will then be available for high-speed aircraft designers.

Les structures de déformation pré-lithification s’enregistrent dans les sédiments meubles. Ces structures sont abondantes dans les domaines sous-glaciaires et marins profonds en raison du développement de surpressions de fluide. A partir de cas d’études choisis dans ces deux environnements, leurs implications sur les (1)reconstructions paléoenvironnementales, leurs impacts sur la (2) morphologie glaciaire, et sur les (3) propriétés pétrophysiques ont pu être définis.(1) L’analyse de ces structures de déformation a permis de mieux contraindre les paléoenvironnements sédimentaires. Ces structures de déformation ont été utilisées comme des «proxy » permettant d’estimer les variations de la vitesse d’écoulement, de l’épaisseur de glace, de la production d’eaux de fonte et de la position de la marge glaciaire.(2) Les séries sédimentaires des vallées tunnels ordoviciennes enregistrent la mise en place de nombreuses structures de déformation liées aux surpressions de fluides. L’analyse de ces structures a permis de proposer un nouveau modèle de creusement des vallées tunnels induits par des pressions de fluides élevées. Ce modèle de creusement, lié aux surpressions de fluide, est favorisé dans les zones d’inter ice-stream. A l’inverse, sous les ice-stream, l’écoulement des eaux de fonte se produit à l’interface glace-substrat et favorise d’autres modèles de formation des vallées tunnels.(3) Les processus de remobilisation sédimentaire ont un impact sur les propriétés pétrophysiques des réservoirs sableux. Les études pétrophysiques menées sur des grès déposés en environnements marins profonds et glaciaires ont permis de mettre en évidence l’impact des surpressions de fluides sur les propriétés réservoirs des sables. Les processus de fluidisation sont capable de créer de bons réservoirs, tandisque les processus d’élutriations ont tendance a réduire la porosité/perméabilité. / Soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDs) occur in unconsolidated sediments, during or shortly after deposition. SSDs are abundant in subglacial and deep-marine environments because of the development of fluid overpressure. Case studies of these two sedimentary environments were used (1) to reconstruct palaeoenvironments from SSDS, and (2) to define the impacts of SSDS on glacial morphologies and (3) petrophysical properties.(1) Analyses of strain regimes, deformation mechanisms, and chronologies in SSDs served to improve palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. These structures were used as proxys to estimate variations of ice flow velocities, ice thickness, meltwater production, and position of the ice margin.(2) The sedimentary series of ordovician tunnel valleys record numerous SSDs induced by fluid overpressure. A new model of tunnel valley formation controlled by the increase of porewater pressure in the bed is proposed. This model of formation occurs in inter-ice stream zones, where meltwater is transferred to the substratum. In ice-stream corridors, meltwater circulates at the ice-bed interface and promotes the formation of tunnel valleys controlled by meltwater processes.(3) Remobilisation processes triggered by the increase of fluid pressure have an impact on the granular framework and on the geometry of reservoirs. Petrophysical studies of subglacial and deep-marine sandstones demonstrated the impact of fluid overpressure on reservoir properties. Processes of fluidisation are responsible for the increase in porosity/permeability, while elutriation processes lead to a decrease in these petrophysical properties.

Esta pesquisa apresenta os resultados obtidos com o emprego de um método físico para aumento da resistência de concretos projetados a pequenas idades. O método consiste na aplicação de gradientes elétricos ao material logo após a projeção, sendo mantido nas primeiras 5:30 h de hidratação. O comportamento mecânico do concreto projetado submetido a gradientes elétricos foi analisado em termos da resistência à compressão e módulo de elasticidade a partir da resposta de modelos estruturais e de amostras extraídas de estruturas projetadas em diferentes idades. Os modelos estruturais foram desenvolvidos para simular esforços ao concreto projetado semelhantes àqueles resultantes da interação solo-suporte em obras subterrâneas. A projeção do concreto nestes modelos ocorreu diretamente sobre o solo, permitindo assim a análise da eficiência do método sob condições de fuga de corrente elétrica para o maciço em diferentes tipos de solos. A instrumentação destes modelos permitiu analisar a eficiência do método sobre a deformabilidade do concreto projetado, sendo medidas as evoluções de deformações elásticas e deformações de fluência ao longo do tempo bem como deformações independentes de tensões desde as primeiras horas de hidratação. Constataram-se acréscimos na resistência nas primeiras 8 h de idade do concreto projetado em projeção sobre placas de madeira e diretamente sobre o solo. O módulo de elasticidade obtido a partir da instrumentação da resposta instantânea ao carregamento também constatou melhorias pela aplicação do gradiente elétrico. A reologia do concreto projetado, a partir das parcelas de deformações instantânea, retardada e lenta foi analisada utilizando-se o modelo proposto por SCHUBERT (1988). Melhorias foram observadas na resposta em termos de deformações do concreto projetado quando submetidos ao gradiente elétrico, apresentando menores taxas de evolução de deformações lentas em resposta a carregamentos iniciados em idades inferiores a 10 h e redução da parcela de deformação permanente frente ao descarregamento. A investigação dos fatores que provocam acréscimos na resistência a pequenas idades pela aplicação de gradientes elétricos a pastas e argamassas foi realizada utilizando-se técnicas de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura e Difratometria de Raio X. Constataram-se alterações na microestrutura de argamassas submetidas a gradiente elétrico, sem alteração nos compostos hidratados. Alterações na taxa de hidratação foram evidenciadas pela comparação de padrões difratométricos entre pastas submetidas a gradientes elétricos e pastas de referência. / This work presents the results obtained by employing a physical method for the strength increase of shotcrete at early age. The method consists of applying electric gradient to the material during the first 5 hours and 30 minutes of hydration, starting immediately after spraying. The mechanical behavior of shotcrete subjected to electric gradient was evaluated at different ages in terms of unconfined compressive strength and elastic modulus obtained from the response of structural models and on samples cored from the structural models. Shotcrete structural models were constructed in order to simulate internal forces resulting from ground mass - support interaction in underground works. Shotcrete in these models was sprayed directly on soil. It was thus possible to analyse the efficiency of the method when leakage currents occur through the soil. Model instrumentation alloed to evaluate the method efficiency in terms of shotcrete deformability. The evolution of elastic and creep strains were evaluated, as well as stress-independent strains since the beginning of hydration. Strength increase during the first 8 hours of age were observed both on panels shotcreted on wooden forms and directly on soil. The elastic modulus was also obtained from the analysis of the instantaneous strain reponse to the applied load. Improvement due to electric gradient was also found this way. Shotcrete rheology in terms instantaneous, delayed and creep strains was analyzed adopting the model proposed by SCHUBERT (1988). Improvement due to the electric gradient was found with respect to each of those strain components resulting from load applied at ages lower that 10h. Permanent strain after unloading was also reduced. The investigation of the phenomena responsible for the strength increase at early age due to the application of electric gradient to cement paste and mortar was carried out with the techniques of scanning electron microscope and X-ray diffraction. Microstructure changes were found in mortar speciments subjected to electric gradient, however without any change of hydrated products. Hydration rate changes were detected from diffractometric patterns of cement pastes subjected to electric gradient.

Ce travail de recherche a pour objectif de présenter la conception de tunnels au moyen de la méthode hyperstatique aux coefficients de réaction (HRM). Les modèles développés par la méthode HRM sont tout d'abord proposés pour étudier le comportement de tunnels en forme de fer à cheval inversée dans différentes conditions, par exemple en considérant deux cas de charge, deux géométries différentes de revêtement de tunnel, deux cas de coefficients de réaction différents, changement de la rigidité des coefficients de réaction, conditions de sol multicouches, surcharges en surface et sol saturés. Les modèles présentés permettent d’aboutir à des prévisions qualitatives avec une efficacité de calcul élevée par rapport à la modélisation numérique en différences finies. Une analyse paramétrique est ensuite réalisée pour estimer le comportement du revêtement de tunnel en forme de fer à cheval dans un grand nombre de cas couvrant les conditions généralement rencontrées dans la pratique. Ensuite, en prenant comme exemple un tunnel métropolitain à deux voies, une série de fonctions mathématiques est déduite et utilisée dans le processus d'optimisation d’un tunnel de forme complexe, ce qui offre aux concepteurs de tunnels un support théorique leur permettant de choisir la forme optimale du tunnel à mettre en oeuvre. L’effet de différents paramètres, tels que le coefficient des terres au repos, le module d’Young du sol, la profondeur du tunnel, les surcharges en surface, sur les efforts internes et la forme du tunnel. Dans la dernière partie du manuscrit, l’influence d’un changement de température sur les efforts dans le revêtement d’un tunnel circulaire au moyen de la méthode HRM est étudiée en tenant compte de différents facteurs, tels que l’épaisseur du revêtement de tunnel, le module d’élasticité du revêtement et le coefficient de dilatation thermique du sol. / This research work aims to present the design of tunnel by means of the Hyperstatic Reaction Method (HRM). The models developed by the HRM method are firstly proposed for investigating the behaviour of U-shaped tunnels under different conditions, considering two load cases, two different geometries of U-shaped tunnel lining, two different cases of springs, change of the spring stiffness, multi-layered soil conditions, surcharge loading, and saturated soil masses. The presented models permit to obtain good predictions with a high computational efficiency in comparison to finite difference numerical modelling. Then a parametric analysis has permitted to estimate the U-shaped tunnel lining behaviour in a large number of cases which cover the conditions that are generally encountered in practice. Thereafter, taking a twin-lane metro tunnel as an example, a series of mathematical functions used in the optimization progress of sub-rectangular tunnel shape is deduced, which gives to tunnel designers a theoretical support to choose the optimal sub-rectangular tunnel shape. The effect of different parameters, like the lateral earth pressure factor, soil Young’s modulus, tunnel depth, surface loads, on the internal forces and shape of sub-rectangular tunnel is then given. In the last part of the manuscript, the influence of a temperature change on the lining forces of circular tunnel by means of the HRM method is investigated, considering different factors, such as the tunnel lining thickness, lining elastic modulus and ground coefficient of thermal expansion.

In this thesis, techniques for testing aircraft models in ground effect in a low speed wind tunnel are investigated. Although these types of tests have been done before, the current study is unique in that forces are measured with an overhead balance instead of an internal balance. This has the advantage that the types of models that are difficult to mount on a sting with an internal balance, can often be mounted with a strut protruding from the top of the model. Positioning a sting-mounted model close to the ground at a high angle-of-attack is also usually difficult if not impossible. Finally, drag measurements are often more accurate when measured with an overhead balance rather than with an internal sting-type balance. The disadvantages associated with this method of testing are identified and solutions suggested. These include accurate moment transfers and correcting for support tares and interference. The thesis also investigates general procedures associated with ground effect testing such as proper boundary corrections and the necessity of a rolling floor. A simplified preliminary test series was performed in order to identify shortcomings in the existing equipment and procedures. This series is explained in Chapter 2. Chapter 4 and 5 describe changes made to the existing equipment following this test series. These include a novel telescopic fairing to shroud the mounting strut and an internal pitching mechanism. The correction techniques and general theory are summarised in Chapter 3. The author concludes in Chapter 6 that with the application of the techniques described in this thesis, the test engineer should be able to obtain accurate and reliable data from most aircraft configurations. Additional suggestions for testing models in ground effect are also given in this chapter. Finally, a few shortcomings that still need to be investigated are mentioned at the end of Chapter 6. AFRIKAANS : Hierdie verhandeling ondersoek tegnieke om vliegtuigmodelle in grondeffek in 'n laespoed-windtonnel te toets. Alhoewel hierdie tipe van toetse al voorheen gedoen is, is die huidige studie uniek deurdat 'n oorhoofse balans eerder as 'n interne balans gebruik word. Die voordeel hiervan is dat modelle wat moeilik op 'n naald- of "sting"-balans monteer kan word, baie keer makliker monteer kan word met 'n stang wat deur die bokant van die model steek. Posisioneering van 'n naald-gemonteerde model naby aan die vloer van die tonnel by hoe invalshoeke is gewoonlik ook baie moeilik indien nie onmoontlik nie. Laastens is sleurkrag-metings wat met 'n oorhoofse balans gemeet is gewoonlik meer akkuraat as sleurkrag-metings wat met 'n interne naald-tipe balans gedoen is. Die nadele wat met hierdie toetsmetode geassosieer kan word, word geïdentifiseer en moontlike oplossing word voorgestel. Hierdie sluit die berekening in van akkurate moment-transformasies en monteersleureffekte en -steurings. Die verhandeling ondersoek ook algemene prosedures wat met grondeffektoetse geassosieer kan word, byvoorbeeld akkurate wandkorreksies en die nodigheid van die rolvloer. 'n Vereenvoudigde vooraf-toetsreeks was uitgevoer om moontlike tekortkominge in die bestaande toerusting en prosedures te identifiseer. Hierdie toetsreeks word in Hoofstuk 2 bespreek. Hoofstuk 4 en 5 verduidelik die veranderinge wat aan die bestaande toerusting gemaak is na aanleidng van hierdie toetsreeks. Hierdie veranderinge sluit 'n teleskopiese windskerm in om die monteerstang te isoleer van die wind, sowel as 'n interne heimeganisme om die invalshoek van die model te verstel. Die korreksieprosedures en algemene teorie word in Hoofstuk 3 opgesom. Die outeur se gevolgtekking in Hoofstuk 6 stel dat die toetsingenieur, met behulp van die gebruik van die tegnieke in hierdie verhandeling beskryf, in staat behoort te wees om betroubare metings te kan neem van meeste vliegtuigkonfigurasies. Verdere voorstelle vir die toets van modelle in grondeffek word ook in hierdie hoofstuk gemaak. Uiteindelik word 'n paar tekortkominge genoem wat moontlik in 'n toekomstige studie ondersoek kan word. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 1999. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / unrestricted

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[pt] Esta dissertação tem como objetivo principal estudar o comportamento mecânico de um túnel, especificamente avaliando a degradação do maciço rochoso escavado de gnaisse ao longo do tempo, como se tem na região Sudeste do Rio de Janeiro. A maior cobertura da escavação subterrânea atinge a uma profundidade de 300m., com o um grau de alteração dos minerais da rocha escavada, seccionada por três famílias de descontinuidades que são de maior importância geológica com o potencial risco ao desabamento. Além disso, se avaliaram os cenários, em condições muito persistentes e moderadamente persistentes, com a finalidade de observar sua influência na estabilidade do túnel. Também foi avaliado o comportamento do maciço para três cenários de tensões in situ, K0= 1 (Condições Hidrostáticas), K0= 0.5 e K0= 1.5. Nas análises foram considerados a escavação com e sem elementos de suporte. Os suportes do maciço rochoso nas análises foram com concreto projetado com fibras metálicas (CPRF), reforço de cabos e a mistura dos dois. A análise numérica bidimensional da estabilidade da escavação, para os diferentes casos mencionados, foi feita utilizando o Método dos Elementos Discretos (MED), através do software comercial UDEC (Itasca, 2011). Nas análises dos mecanismos de ruptura com valores de deslocamentos cisalhantes máximos, foi observado que os efeitos do comportamento cisalhante do maciço são maiores na medida em que o ângulo de atrito vai diminuindo, tendo uma importante incidência na sua estabilidade o grau de persistência. Estes resultados mostram índices capazes de prever o comportamento de instabilidade da escavação para estes casos desenvolvidos. / [en] This thesis has the main objective to study the mechanical behavior of a tunnel, specifically assessing the degradation of gneiss rock mass excavated over time, as it has in the South-east region of Rio de Janeiro. The cover of the underground excavation reaches the depth of 300m. with a degree of alteration of minerals of the excavated rock, sectioned by three families of discontinuities that are of most geological importance with the potential risk of collapse. Moreover, scenarios are evaluated in conditions very persistent and moderately with the purpose of observing their influence on the stability of the tunnel. It was also rated the rock mass behavior for three scenarios of in situ stresses, K0= 1 (Conditions Hydrostatic), K0= 0.5 and K0= 1.5. In the analysis were considering the excavation with and without support elements. The supports of the rock mass in the analysis were with shotcrete with steel fibers (CPRF), reinforcement cable bolts and mixing the two. Two-dimensional numerical analysis of the stability of the excavation for the different cases mentioned was made using the Method of Discrete Elements (DEM) through the commercial software UDEC (Itasca, 2011). In the analysis of failure mechanisms with maximum shear displacement values, it was observed that the effects of mass shear behavior are larger in as far as than the friction angle decreases, with an important effect on their stability the degree of persistence. These results show indexes able to predict the behavior of instability of the excavation for these cases developed.