Neste projeto de pesquisa avaliou-se a etapa de filtração no processo de tratamento de água para abastecimento público. Para isto, foi utilizado um sistema de filtração piloto composto por quatro filtros rápidos por gravidade de camada profunda. Os filtros piloto foram alimentados com água decantada da Estação de Tratamento de Água Rio Grande, e operados com taxa de filtração de 500 m3/m2/dia. A concepção dos filtros variou em termos de material filtrante (areia e antracito), diâmetro dos grãos e altura do leito. Os filtros foram avaliados em termos de turbidez, contagem de partículas, evolução de perda de carga e velocidade ascensional de água de lavagem. Na Etapa 1, operando-se filtros de areia e antracito com diferentes diâmetros, o filtro de antracito com 1,3 mm de diâmetro e 120 cm de altura apresentou melhor comportamento no tocante aos parâmetros avaliados. Na etapa 2, comparando-se filtros de areia e de antracito com mesmo diâmetro (1,3 mm) e altura de leito (120 cm), mais uma vez o filtro de antracito foi superior. Acredita-se que os índices físicos justifiquem esse comportamento. Na Etapa 3, conclui-se que o aumento de altura de leito dos filtros de areia (1,3 mm) e antracito (1,3 mm) de 120 cm para 160 cm foi benéfico para ambos os materiais filtrantes em termos de qualidade do efluente, mas muito mais significativo para o antracito, e não se observou alteração de comportamento no tocante à evolução de perda de carga. Com o ensaio de fluidificação e expansão do leito filtrante, conclui-se que, considerando-se o mesmo tempo de duração da lavagem e a mesma expansão do leito, o filtro de antracito possibilitou a utilização de menor velocidade ascensional de água de lavagem, que representa grande economia com relação aos custos do sistema de lavagem. Assim, em todos os aspectos estudados, o uso de antracito (1,3 mm) como material filtrante para filtros rápidos por gravidade de camada profunda se mostrou mais vantajoso. / This project researched the filtration stage in the water treatment process for public use. The research used a pilot filtration system based on four rapid gravity depth bed filters, with a filtration rate of 500m3/m2/dia. The water used in the experiment came from sedimentation tank of the Rio Grande water treatment facility. During the experimental phase the filters were loaded with different depth, used different filter media (sand and anthracite) and used grain with different effective size. The filters were evaluated in terms of turbidity, particle count, head loss and superficial velocity of backwashing water. In the first part of the study, when analyzing the results of filters loaded to a depth of 120 cm using both sand and anthracite with different size, the anthracite filter with effective size of 1.3 mm was the one with the best results. In the second part of the study, when comparing anthracite and sand with same the effective size, the anthracite also presented better results. Finally when increasing the depth of the filter, both sand and anthracite filters showed improved performance in terms of effluent quality, but anthracite filters kept outperforming sand filters. In both case, there were no evidences of changing in the head loss development. When performing fluidization and expansion experiments, considering the same backwashing cycle time and expansion of filter media, the anthracite filter allowed lower superficial velocity which represents relevant economies in the washing system costs. Therefore the use of anthracite (1.3mm) as a filter medium for rapid gravity depth bed filters is recommended.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a potencialidade de aplicação da Flotação por Ar Dissolvido (FAD) na redução da turbidez da água do Rio Gualaxo do Norte, o qual foi poluído por, pelo menos, 40 bilhões de litros de rejeito do processamento de minério de ferro após a ruptura da barragem de rejeitos da Samarco, em novembro de 2015. Com isto, o estudo visa determinar as condições ótimas de coagulação (dosagem e pH), floculação (gradiente médio de velocidade e tempo de floculação) e taxa de reciclo (percentual de mistura água-ar dissolvido), visando obter parâmetros satisfatórios de qualidade em termos de turbidez residual e eficiência de remoção turbidez para amostras compostas por variados valores de turbidez (419 NTU, 785 NTU 1412 NTU e 3517 NTU), a fim de se simular a resposta da FAD frente a eventuais variações na concentração de sólidos na água de estudo. Dentro do universo deste estudo, foi possível demonstrar que a elevada turbidez, a baixa hidrofobicidade e a elevada densidade das partículas minerais suspensas levou à redução da capacidade de flotação das microbolhas, resultando em uma fração de material sedimentado (em média 25%). Todavia, foi constatado que, em geral, o coagulante cloreto férrico foi eficiente na remoção de sólidos via FAD, promovendo, com 18% de taxa de reciclo, turbidez residual de 49 NTU para a amostra mais turva (de turbidez inicial 3517 NTU). O coagulante natural Tanfloc SL apresentou desempenho promissor, pois foi possível a clarificação das amostras altamente turvas (com até 1412 NTU) com a aplicação de uma diminuta dosagem (2,0 mg/L) e baixa taxa de reciclo (6%), resultando em turbidez residual próxima a 59 NTU. Além disto, o coagulante Tanfloc SL permitiu maior flotabilidade dos flocos, enquanto o coagulante cloreto férrico levou a maiores percentuais de sedimentação destes. Após o tratamento com o coagulante cloreto férrico, a concentração de ferro dissolvido na água foi elevada, inclusive a valores superiores ao limite estabelecido pela legislação. Em contrapartida, o coagulante Tanfloc SL manteve baixa concentração de metais dissolvidos na água, o que reforça a vantajosa aplicação de um coagulante natural e biodegradável. / This research project aimed to evaluate the viability of the application of the Dissolved Air Flotation (FAD) technique in the reduction of the River Gualaxo do Norte water turbidity, polluted by at least 40 billion liters of iron ore tailings after the rupture of the Samarco tailings dam, in November of 2015. Therefore, this study\'s purpose is to determine the optimum coagulation conditions (dose and pH), flocculation (mean velocity gradient and flocculation time) and recycle rate (water-dissolved air mixture percentage) in order to obtain satisfactory quality parameters in terms of residual turbidity and removal efficiency for samples presenting varying turbidity values (1412 NTU 419 NTU 785 NTU and 3517 NTU) aiming to simulate the DAF reponse to any variations in solids concentration. Within the universe of this study, it was possible to demonstrate that the high turbidity, and especially the high density of the suspended mineral particles, led to the reduction of the flotation capacity of the microbubbles, resulting in a sediment fraction (25% - mean value). However, it was found that, in general, the coagulant ferric chloride was effective in removal of solids via FAD, promoting with 18% recycle rate, residual turbidity of 49 NTU for the most turbid water sample (initial turbidity 3517 NTU). The natural coagulant Tanfloc SL presented a favorable performance, as it was possible to clarify highly turbid samples (up to 1412 NTU) using a low dosage (2.0 mg / L) and low recycle rate (6%), resulting in in residual turbidity close to 59 NTU. In addition, the coagulant Tanfloc SL allowed greater flotation of the flocs, while the coagulant ferric chloride led to higher sedimentation percentages. With the use of ferric chloride as coagulant the iron concentration dissolved in the water was elevated, even to values higher than the limit established by the legislation. In contrast, the coagulant Tanfloc SL maintained a low concentration of dissolved metals in the water, which reinforces the advantageous application of a natural and biodegradable organic coagulant.

A utilização da Moringa oleifera (M.O) na clarificação de água seguida pela exposição solar como forma de desinfecção vem sendo usada em regiões desfavorecidas em infraestrutura e recursos financeiros. Essas tecnologias proporcionam as pessoas que habitam nessas regiões, água, de maneira fácil, autossustentável e a custo baixo. O objetivo do estudo foi de avaliar o uso conjunto da M.O na coagulação-floculação e do sistema solar na desinfeção da água para consumo humano. Os objetivos específicos da pesquisa foram: a) determinar a dose de M.O na remoção da turbidez e cor aparente da água bruta; b) determinar o tempo de exposição solar necessário para a remoção de E. coli e coliformes totais presentes na água clarificada com M.O; c) identificar com a técnica delineamento composto central rotacional (DCCR) quais variáveis independentes (pH, dosagem, tempo de mistura lenta e rápida) exerceram maior remoção da cor aparente e turbidez na água bruta. Na desinfeção solar foi considerado um tempo de exposição de 2, 4 e 6 horas, e para a determinação da dosagem e tempos ótimos foram realizados 28 ensaios em Jarteste. Os dados obtidos foram analisados através da Metodologia de Superfície de Resposta do DCCR do programa Statistic 8. As condições do ensaio que apresentou os melhores resultados foram: pH, 6,3; tempos de mistura rápida e lenta de 4 e 25 minutos, respectivamente; dosagem ótima de Moringa de 950 mg/L. Nestas condições, houve remoção de 80% da cor e 94% da turbidez. Adicionalmente, a clarificação com Moringa removeu 98,5 e 96,3% de coliformes totais e E. coli presentes na água bruta. A análise de variância mostrou que a dosagem ótima, os tempos de mistura rápida e lenta e a interação dos tempos de mistura lenta e rápida influenciaram na remoção da turbidez, enquanto a remoção de cor foi influenciada pela dosagem ótima e tempo de mistura lenta. As amostras com e sem filtração em filtro quantitativo de porosidade disforme (tecido de algodão de uso doméstico) foram expostas a desinfeção solar para a remoção de E. coli e coliformes totais. Houve eliminação de 64,8 e 59,7% em 2 horas; 100% e 99,7% em 4 horas e 100% em 6 horas para água não filtrada. Para água filtrada, as remoções foram de 70 e 19,2% (2 horas); 100 e 46% (4 horas) e 100% (6 horas). A desinfecção solar mostrou-se mais eficiente na exposição da água por 6 horas. Assim sendo, o uso conjunto da Moringa e da desinfeção solar em geral promoveram a clarificação e a desinfecção da água, reduzindo significativamente a turbidez e deixando-a livre de E. coli e coliformes totais. / The use of Moringa oleifera (M.O) in clarifying water followed by sunlight exposure as a means of disinfection has been used in disadvantaged areas with lack of infrastructure and financial resources. These technologies provide the people living in these regions, water in self-sustainable and cost-effective way. The objective of the study was to evaluate the combined use of M.O in coagulation-flocculation followed by solar disinfection to produce water suitable for human consumption. The specific objectives of the research were: a) to determine the optimal dose of M.O for removing turbidity and apparent color of the raw water; b) to determine the exposure time required for solar disinfection and removal from E. coli and total coliforms (TC) in the clarified water with M.O; c) to identify with the technical design central composite (CCRD) which independent variables (pH, dosage, slow and fast mixing time) had higher removal of apparent color and turbidity in the raw water. Exposure times tested in solar disinfection were 2, 4 and 6 hours. Twenty eight jartests were performed to determine the optimal dose, slow and fast mixing time and pH. Data were analyzed by CCRD Response Surface Methodology using the program Statistic 8. Test conditions that showed the best results were: pH, 6.3; fast and slow mixing times of 4 and 25 minutes, respectively; Moringa optimum dose of 950 mg/L. Under these optimal conditions, removals efficiencies for color and turbidity were, respectively, 80% of color and 94%. In additional, clarification with Moringa removed 98.5 and 96.3% of total coliforms and E. coli present in the raw water. Analysis of variance showed that the optimal dosage of the fast and slow mixing times, and the interaction of the fast and slow mixing times influenced the removal of turbidity, while the color removal was influenced by the optimum dosage and duration of slow mixing. The samples filtered in filter quantitative without unsightly porosity and were exposed to solar disinfection for removal of E. coli and total coliforms. There elimination 64.8 and 59.7% at 2 hours; 100% and 99.7% in 4 hours and 100% at 6 hours for unfiltered water. For filtered water removals were 70 and 19.2% (2 hours); 100 and 46% (4 hours) and 100% (6 h). Solar disinfection was more efficient in water exposure for 6 hours. It could be concluded that the joint use of the Moringa and solar disinfection generally promoted the clarification and disinfection of water, significantly reducing turbidity and leaving the water free of E. coli and total coliforms.

Orientador: Regina Maura Bueno Franco / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T22:08:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CantusioNeto_Romeu_D.pdf: 1288923 bytes, checksum: 6747f006dc8fe56fe9a7284e80649fe0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: A veiculação hídrica tem sido considerada uma das principais vias de transmissão de giardiose e criptosporidiose sendo implicada na ocorrência de vários surtos de gastroenterites, em vários países nos últimos anos. Diante deste panorama, no Brasil foi emitida Portaria 518/04 (Ministério da Saúde), que recomenda a pesquisa destes protozoários em água de consumo humano. Por este motivo, o objetivo deste estudo foi realizar um estudo comparativo entre as metodologias de concentração já existentes: Filtração em Membrana (FM) e Floculação em Carbonato de Cálcio (FCC), tecendo uma análise crítica das mesmas e verificando-se a sua aplicabilidade em amostras naturais de água superficial do Rio Atibaia. Este estudo foi conduzido em duas etapas: na primeira, foram realizados 52 experimentos, visando analisar o desempenho dos métodos propostos determinando-se a precisão inicial em amostras de água reagente inoculadas com suspensões comerciais de cistos e oocistos Easy Seed® (Biotecnology Frontiers, Austrália), aplicando-se ou não a etapa de purificação mediante o uso da separação imunomagnética. Quando foram avaliadas amostras do rio Atibaia, a suspensão comercial de cistos e oocistos utilizada para a contaminação artificial foi Color Seed® (Biotecnology Frontiers, Austrália). Em uma segunda etapa, um total de 36 experimentos foi conduzido com o objetivo de se avaliar o comportamento dos mesmos métodos frente a fatores interferentes, característicos da matriz de água bruta superficial, entre eles a turbidez. Nos experimentos controle com amostra de água reagente, a metodologia de FM recuperou mais organismos (21,5 % dos oocistos e 25,0 % dos cistos), quando comparada com a metodologia de FCC (5,3 % e 5,8 % dos oocistos e cistos, respectivamente). A inclusão da etapa de purificação por separação imunomagnética (IMS) não resultou num aumento na recuperação de cistos e oocistos nestas metodologias (FM e FCC). Nos experimentos com amostras de água do Rio Atibaia, de uma maneira geral, a metodologia de FCC apresentou melhor desempenho de recuperação dos organismos e quando incluída a etapa de IMS, uma melhora ocorreu apenas para a recuperação de cistos de Giardia spp. Quando avaliada amostras de água bruta superficial do rio Atibaia em condições de turbidez até 50 NTU a etapa de purificação por IMS acarretou uma maior eficiência de recuperação de cistos de Giardia spp. e oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp., para as duas metodologias de concentração. Quando a turbidez das amostras foi superior a 50 NTU, uma melhora da recuperação ocorreu apenas para Cryptosporidium spp, utilizando-se o método de FM. Assim, ambas as metodologias avaliadas, mostraram-se eficientes para serem aplicadas em um monitoramento desses protozoários em amostras hídricas, mesmo em situações de alta turbidez. A etapa de purificação pela separação imunomagnética nem sempre apresentou um ganho na recuperação dos organismos e, as variações nos valores de recuperação para ambos os protozoários, são inerentes aos protocolos utilizados e também associados à matriz analisada. A FM é indicada pela praticidade, tempo e resultados, podendo auxiliar para o conhecimento da ocorrência destes patógenos e assim, minimizar a possibilidade de sua transmissão mediante veiculação hídrica / Abstract: The waterborne transmission route of giardiosis and criptosporidiosis has been considered the major one, causing the occurrence of several gastroenteritis outbreaks in several countries in the last years. Looking to this panorama, was published in Brazil the Governmental Decree 518/04 (Health Department), that recommends the research of these protozoa in water samples. For this reason, the goal of this study was to accomplish a comparative study between Membrane Filtration (MF) and Calcium Carbonate Flocculation (FCC) concentration methodologies, doing a critical analysis of both and verifying its apply in natural samples of Atibaia River superficial water. Two stages took place: in the first one, 52 experiments were carried out, aiming to analyze the performance of the methods proposed, determining the initial precision in samples of reagent water inoculated with commercial suspensions of cysts and oocysts (Easy Seed®-Biotecnology Frontiers Australia), applying or not the purification step by Immunomagnetic Separation. When natural water samples were evaluated, the commercial suspension of cysts and oocysts utilized for the artificial contamination was (Color Seed®-Biotecnology Frontiers Australia). In a second step, 36 experiments were carried out aiming to evaluate the behavior of the methods facing interferential factors, peculiar of the superficial raw water matrix, as turbidity. In the trial control with reagent water sample, the FM methodology recovered more organisms (21.5% of the oocysts and 25.0% of the cysts), in comparison to the FCC methodology (5.3% of the oocysts and 5.8% of the cysts). The purification step by Immunomagnetic Separation (IMS) did not show an improvement in the recovery of cysts and oocysts in these methodologies (FM and FCC). In the experiments with natural water performance of the organisms and when IMS step was included, an improvement occurred just for the recovery of Giardia spp. cysts. When superficial raw water of Atibaia river samples with turbidity up to 50 NTU were evaluated, the purification step by IMS showed higher efficiency in the recovery of Giardia spp. cysts and Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts, for both concentration methodologies. When the turbidity of the sample was over 50 NTU, a recovery improvement occurred just for Cryptosporidium spp, using the FM method. Thus, both methodologies showed efficiency in monitoring these protozoa in water samples, even in situations of high turbidity. The purification step by Immunomagnetic Separation not always showed gain in the recovery of the organisms and the variations in the values of recovery for both protozoa are inherent to the protocols that were used and also associated to the analyzed matrix. However, the FM method is indicated for its practicability, time and results, being able to help the knowledge of the occurrence of these pathogens and minimize the possibility of its transmission by waterborne route / Doutorado / Parasitologia / Doutor em Parasitologia

Orientadores: João Domingos Biagi, Rafael Augustus de Oliveira / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agrícola / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T15:21:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Nascimento_VaniaRosalGuimaraes_D.pdf: 3645328 bytes, checksum: b63d06f929921f324f1418bf827a40ea (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: A radiação infravermelha aplicada na secagem de produtos agrícolas e alimentos apresenta a vantagem de aquecer diretamente o produto exposto, com poucas perdas com aquecimento do ar circundante, promovendo maior eficiência energética e redução do tempo de secagem. O produto estudado nesta pesquisa foi grãos de Moringa oleifera Lam, que dentre suas múltiplas aplicações, destaca-se como coagulante natural no tratamento de água, devido a uma proteína catiônica de ação clarificante. Embora seja constatada a necessidade de utilização de grãos secos nesses processos, não se verificou na literatura científica recomendação das condições de secagem adequadas aos grãos para serem utilizados na solução coagulante. Neste sentido, o uso combinado da radiação infravermelha com ar aquecido pode ser viável tecnicamente e eficiente na secagem de grãos de Moringa oleifera Lam, mantendo a qualidade dos grãos para utilização em tratamento de água. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o potencial de aplicação da radiação infravermelha intermitente em associação com a secagem convectiva de grãos de Moringa oleifera L., quanto à eficiência de secagem, consumo energético e manutenção da qualidade dos grãos. Realizaram-se ensaios de secagem estudando os fatores temperatura e velocidade do ar, intensidade e tempo de aplicação da radiação infravermelha para definir aqueles que interferem no processo e seus níveis ótimos de operação. O aumento da intensidade da radiação infravermelha reduziu o tempo de secagem, o consumo de energia e propiciou maior eficiência na redução da turbidez de água quando esses grãos foram aplicados na produção de coagulante. A elevação dos níveis da velocidade do ar, por sua vez, diminuiu a taxa de secagem e aumentou o consumo de energia. O incremento da temperatura do ar de secagem provocou elevação da taxa de secagem, reduziu o tempo de secagem e contribuiu com a redução da turbidez de água sintética tratada com solução coagulante de grãos de Moringa oleifera L. O tempo de aplicação da radiação infravermelha aumentou a taxa de secagem e permitiu redução da turbidez de água sintética quando seus níveis foram aumentados. A difusividade efetiva variou entre 6,44x10-10 m² s-1 e 9,89x10-10 m² s-1. Os modelos de Fick e Midilli apresentaram melhores ajustes aos dados experimentais. A temperatura do ar e o tempo de aplicação da radiação infravermelha elevaram a temperatura do ar dentro do secador e a temperatura dentro dos grãos durante os ensaios de secagem. O tempo de aplicação da radiação infravermelha reduziu consideravelmente o consumo total de energia durante as secagens. A elevação do nível de temperatura do ar de secagem, no entanto, provocou proporcional aumento do consumo de energia. Constatou-se que a região do ponto central do planejamento experimental, temperatura do ar de 44°C e tempo de aplicação da radiação infravermelha de 3,4 min, apresentou a combinação entre os fatores com maior teor de proteína e que correspondeu maior remoção de turbidez quando esses grãos foram utilizados para produção de coagulante. Em relação à qualidade dos grãos de Moringa oleifera L., a secagem aumentou a concentração do teor de proteína, favoreceu a sedimentação dos sólidos devido à oxidação de lipídios e promoveu maior remoção da turbidez de água sintética tratada com solução a base desses grãos / Abstract: The infrared radiation applied for drying of agricultural products and foods presents the advantage of heating directly the exposed product, minimizing losses with heating of surrounding air, promoting grater energy efficiency and reducing in drying time. The product studied in this research was Moringa oleifera Lam grains, which among its many applications, stand out as a natural coagulant in water treatment, due to the presence of a cationic protein with clarifier action. Although it is observed the necessity to use dry grains in these processes, there was no recommendation in the scientific literature of appropriate drying conditions for grains to be used in the coagulant solution. In this way, the combined use of infrared radiation with heated air can be technically feasible and efficient in drying of Moringa oleifera L. grains, maintaining the quality attributes of grains for use in water treatment. This study aims to evaluate the potential application of intermittent infrared radiation in association with convective drying of Moringa oleifera L. grains, regarding the drying efficiency, energy consumption and maintenance of grains quality. Experimental runs were performed studying the factors air temperature, air velocity, infrared radiation intensity, and time of infrared radiation application to define those which have an effect on the process and its optimum levels of operation. The increased intensity of the infrared radiation reduced the drying time, energy consumption and propitiated greater efficiency in reducing the turbidity of water when these grains were applied in the coagulant production. Whereas elevated levels of air velocity decreased drying rate and increased energy consumption. The increase in the drying air temperature caused elevation of drying rate, decreased the drying time and contributed with turbidity reduction of synthetic water treated with coagulant solution of Moringa oleifera L. grains. The time of infrared radiation application increased the drying rate and allowed turbidity reduction of synthetic water when its levels were increased. The effective diffusivity ranged from 6.44x10-10 m² s-1 and 9.89x10-10 m² s-1. Fick and Midilli models showed better fit to the experimental data. Air temperature and time of infrared radiation application increased air temperature inside the dryer and the temperature inside the grains during drying experiments. The application of infrared radiation significantly reduced total energy consumption during drying. Increasing the level of air temperature caused a proportional increase in energy consumption. It was found that central point of the experimental design, air temperature of 44 °C and infrared time of 3.4 min, showed a combination of factors with higher protein content and corresponded to the highest turbidity removal when these grains were used for coagulant production. In relation to Moringa oleifera L. grain quality, drying increased the concentration of protein, favored the sedimentation of solids due to the oxidation of lipids and promoted greater removal of turbidity from synthetic water treated with these grains / Doutorado / Tecnologia Pós-Colheita / Doutora em Engenharia Agrícola

O Brasil se destaca na produção agrícola intensiva omitindo em diversas situações práticas conservacionistas acarretando a má estrutura do solo, que por sua vez, propicia a dispersão da argila quando submetida em meio líquido. A argila prontamente dispersa em água (APDA) é a que sofre pequena agitação e pode ser quantificada pelo método do turbidímetro por definir desde os mais elevados graus de turvação até os menores (10000:1) em solução. O uso da espectroscopia tem sido crescente como uma ferramenta eficaz na quantificação das propriedades do solo. Diante disso, objetivou-se comparar métodos de determinação da APDA pelo turbidímetro e pela espectroscopia nas regiões espectrais VisNIR-SWIR-MidIR (400-25000 nm). 68 amostras foram adquiridas do horizonte B de Latossolos e subsuperficial de Neossolos Quartzarênicos e apresentam ampla variabilidade textural, química e mineralógica pertencentes aos estados de Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul e São Paulo, estas foram avaliadas química e fisicamente. A determinação da APDA ocorreu por turbidimetria e esta foi relacionada com a argila total (AT) quantificada nos comprimentos de onda VisNIR-SWIR (350-2500 nm) e MidIR (4000-400 cm-1) via espectroscopia. Através da determinação da APDA, modelos foram criados por análise de regressão múltipla e estes foram ajustados conforme o resultado da análise de variância enquanto que a AT foi quantificada através da regressão por mínimos quadrados parciais (PLSR) por meio da validação cruzada, a ACP e o PLSR foram pressupostos e os modelos foram escolhidos levando em consideração o coeficiente de determinação, erro quadrado médio e a previsão para intervalo interquartil. Ocorreu uma relação negativa entre as variáveis AT, Ca, K, Mg, C e Al com a APDA e uma relação positiva da CTC, P e m com a APDA. Ao serem transformadas para logaritmo as variáveis estiveram mais próximas da normalidade. Das 9 variáveis independentes testadas 5 foram significativamente correlacionadas com a APDA em até 95% (log(AT), log(Ca), log(CTC), log(Al) e log(P)), o modelo foi adquirido por exclusão das variáveis não significativas equivalente ao modelo gerado pelo stepwise. Houve correlação negativa entre a APDA e AT (R2=0,27). A curva espectral evidenciou elevadas discrepâncias na amplitude de reflectância e nas feições das curvas, em razão das diferenças físicas, químicas e mineralógicas dos diferentes solos estudados. Para a AT o desempenho do modelo mensurado na faixa espectral MidIR foi superior (R2 ≥ 0,6; RMSE ≥ 103; RPIQ ≥ 249). Para a APDA os modelos validados sofreram pequena variação (R2 ≥ 0,5; RMSE ≥ 3,5; RPIQ ≥ 10,2) sendo a região MidIR a melhor desempenhada. O turbidímetro mostrou-se ser um método eficaz sendo portanto recomendado para futuros trabalhos. O conteúdo de argila total dos solos estudados foi a variável mais explicativa da APDA. A espectroscopia de reflectância foi eficiente em estimar a APDA tanto quanto o turbidímetro. / Brazil stands out in the intensive agricultural production omitting in several situations conservationist practices causing poor soil structure, which in turn, propitiates the dispersion of the clay when submitted in a liquid environment. The readily-dispersible clay in water (APDA) is the one that undergoes slight agitation and can be quantified by the turbidimeter method to be defined from the highest turbidity to the lowest turbidity (10000: 1) in solution. The use of spectroscopy has been increasing as an effective tool in the quantification of soil properties. The aim of this study was to compare APDA methods by the turbidimeter and by spectroscopy in the VisNIR-SWIR-MidIR (400-25000 nm) spectral regions. 68 samples were obtained from the B horizon of Latosols and subsurface of Quartzarenic Neosols and present wide textural, chemical and mineralogical variability belonging to the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul and São Paulo, which were evaluated chemically and physically. The determination of APDA occurred by turbidimetry and this was related to the total clay (AT) quantified at the wavelengths VisNIR-SWIR (350-2500 nm) and MidIR (4000-400 cm-1) via spectroscopy. Through the determination of the APDA, models were created by multiple regression analysis and these were adjusted according to the result of the analysis of variance while the AT was quantified through the partial least squares regression (PLSR) through the cross validation, the ACP and The PLSR were assumptions and the models were chosen taking into account the coefficient of determination, mean square error and the forecast for interquartile range. There was a negative relationship between the variables AT, Ca, K, Mg, C and Al with APDA and a positive relation of CTC, P and m with APDA. When they were transformed to logarithm the variables were closer to normal. Of the 9 independent variables tested 5 were significantly correlated with APDA in up to 95% (log (AT), log (Ca), log (CTC), log (Al) and log (P)), the model was acquired by excluding the Non-significant variables equivalent to the model generated by stepwise. There was a negative correlation between APDA and AT (R2 = 0.27). The spectral curve showed high discrepancies in reflectance amplitude and curves, due to the physical, chemical and mineralogical differences of the studied soils. For AT, the performance of the model measured in the MidIR spectral range was higher (R2> 0.6, RMSE> 103, RPIQ> 249). For the APDA, the validated models suffered a small variation (R2> 0.5, RMSE> 3.5, RPIQ> 10.2), with the MidIR region being the best performed. The turbidimeter proved to be an effective method and is therefore recommended for future work. The total clay content of the studied soils was the most explanatory variable of APDA. Reflectance spectroscopy was efficient in estimating APDA as much as the turbidimeter.

The transient electric birefringence method, i. e. the transient Kerr effect, has been employed to study the optical, electrical and geometrical properties of three macromolecular systems. An apparatus is described in which the birefringence could be measured when d. c. electric field pulses (of duration 1μs to 5s and strength up to 50 KV/cm) and a. c. electric field pulses (of duration greater than 5 ms, of frequency up to 20 kHz, and strength up to 3 KV/Cm) were applied to solutions of macromolecules. Both the linear and quadratic optical systems have been employed to measure the induced birefringence. A theoretical analysis and review of the errors implicit in such measurements is given, with suggested alignment and calibration procedures. For the first time in electro-optic work, a data-logging system and computer program have been developed and employed, and enabled the automatic recording of transient responses with subsequent high speed data analysis. Measurements have been made on a polypeptide poly – β – benzyl – 1 – aspartate in two solvents. These show how the method can be used to study a rigid macromolecule. A novel investigation was made on the interaction of an anionic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulphate, with a flexible polymer, polyvinylpyrrolidone. The large variation of Kerr constant observed with addition of surfactant indicated a great potential use of this method for studying polymer surfactant interactions. An aqueous suspension of the bacteria E. coli was also studied, but changes in turbidity and not birefringence were the origin of the observed effects. Novel practical methods of investigation, and turbidity calculations carried out with the aid of a computer enabled size parameters and electrical properties to be determined for E. coli. For the first time such results were in agreement with electro-optic light scattering measurements.

Eutrophication is an increasing problem in the Baltic Sea and is caused by an excess of nutrients in the water which are primarily transported with the runoff from cultivated land. The peninsula Vikbolandet in Östergötland is dominated by arable land and has stream outflows to the bays of Bråviken and Slätbaken. In this study five streams of Vikbolandet have been sampled during the spring flood period with the aim of connecting concentrations of nutrients in the streams with turbidity and runoff in the catchment. This analysis has then been related to the land use in the small catchment of Vadsbäcken in order to investigate the impact of land uses with areal losses of phosphorus. The results indicate that there are increasing concentrations of phosphorus downstream in the sites of Vadsbäcken and that the transported amounts of phosphorus increases with the spring flood and at a rainstorm event. It is shown that the distribution of agricultural blocks in the catchment of Vadsbäcken has a major impact on the nutrient leakage. There is a co-variation between turbidity and runoff during a rainstorm event and between particulate-bound phosphorus and runoff over time. A further aim has been to investigate possibilities for use of an easily managed, cost-effective environmental monitoring method for nutrient measurements in watercourses. Within four out of five streams at Vikbolandet there is a significant co-variation between turbidity and total phosphorus. Using field measurements of turbidity for environmental monitoring could provide a viable alternative for environmental monitoring of watercourses but will need further investigations of co-variation before being brought into use. Further, this study shows that the transport of phosphorus is underestimated in environmental monitoring

Worldwide, coral cover has declined at rates that have often exceeded 5% per year since the 1980’s. Populations of scleractinians (stony corals) in the Florida Keys reef tract have declined as well, with some communities declining at rates > 3% per year. Decreased water quality (e.g., steady increases in the ocean water temperatures and increased pollution, nutrients, or water turbidity due to coastal runoff) are commonly attributed to this decline. But actual linkages between variability and trends in these environmental parameters, and in stony coral diversity and ecosystem functions such as net community production, have not yet been well characterized. With this research, I examined the influence of water quality (water temperature, nutrients and turbidity) on stony coral diversity and net community productivity in shallow-water reef ecosystems of the Florida Keys between 1996 and 2010. Differences in stony coral diversity in Florida Keys patch reefs with respect to sea surface temperature (SST) variability are evaluated in Chapter Two. Habitat-specific differences in stony coral diversity with respect to changes in a suite of environmental parameters (water turbidity, nutrients, water temperature and depth) are addressed in Chapter Three. Differences in daytime net community production and light-adapted stony coral photosynthetic efficiencies among three reef sites with different turbidity levels and seasons (May and October) are presented in Chapter Four. Environmental parameters examined to characterize the differences in stony coral diversity across the Florida Reef Tract included satellite-derived sea surface temperature [SST] and Degree Heating Weeks [DHWs], field observations of bio-optical properties of the water, and nutrient concentrations. These parameters were compared with live coral cover and species richness, net community production, and coral photo-physiological observations. In Chapter Two, I found that stony coral cover and diversity was higher in patch reefs of the Florida Keys relative to offshore and deeper reefs. Generally, patch reefs were characterized by intermediate to high SST variability (≥7.0°C2). Intermediate SST variance (7.0–10.9°C2) was correlated with higher diversity indices for patch reefs of the Upper (Shannon Diversity: 1.2–1.5) and Middle Keys (Species Richness: 13–19), suggesting that stony coral species in these habitats are either adapted to intermediate temperature ranges or thermal acclimation has taken place for individual colonies. Additionally, I found that found that years for which cold and warm-water extremes coincided (i.e., highest SST variance), such as 1997-98 and 2009-2010, led to significant reductions in both H’ and SR. Coral bleaching and mortality were associated with exposure to cold- and warm-water temperature extremes and the combination of both extremes were associated with reductions in stony coral diversity. The highest species richness and abundance were found in patch reefs of the Middle Keys, despite exposure to the warmest water-temperature anomaly events (as indicated by DHWs exceeding the coral bleaching threshold of 4) observed during the summers of 1998 and 2010. In Chapter Three, I found that the environmental parameters that best explained the differences in stony coral diversity (species composition and abundance) on patch reefs of the Florida Keys were water turbidity, nutrients, surface water temperature, % surface oxygen saturation and chlorophyll a concentrations averaged over a period of 24 months, along with depth (F = 4.4, R2 = 0.66, R2adj. = 0.40, p < 0.05). Surface water turbidity and depth were the most relevant environmental parameters driving the differences in stony coral diversity (R2 = 0.17, p < 0.05, R2 = 0.10, p < 0.05, respectively). The influence of these environmental parameters decreased towards offshore shallow and deep reefs. In the Florida Keys, stony coral diversity was the highest at patch reefs of the Middle and Lower Keys where exposed to higher water turbidity and nutrients than those in the Upper Keys located in clearer waters. This suggests that, at long-term scales, corals in patch reef environments exposed to higher water turbidity and water temperature variabilities (as reported in Chapter Two) might be better able to withstand thermal and light-induced stress. Moreover, a short-term study (described in Chapter Four) indicated that the net community production (NEP) was similar among sites with different water turbidity levels (i.e., Cheeca Rocks and Crocker Reef; Upper Keys and Sugarloaf Key; Lower Keys) and seasons (May or October). However, the light-adapted photosynthetic efficiencies (F/Fm’) varied spatiotemporally. The highest F/Fm’ values (0.57–0.69) were found at the nearshore patch reef of Sugarloaf Key, Lower Keys, in October 2012. At this patch reef, high light attenuation (Kd (488) = 0.12 m-1) was associated with absorption by colored dissolved organic matter and exacerbated by particulates following thunderstorms. The lowest F/Fm’ values ( This study represents a baseline against which future observations on coral reef biodiversity and net community production in the Florida Keys reef tract may be evaluated.

Ancient basin-floor strata are exceptionally well exposed in the Neoproterozoic Windermere Supergroup in the southern Canadian Cordillera. Data from the Castle Creek outcrop, where strata of the upper Kaza Group crop out, and the Mt. Quanstrom outcrop, where the middle Kaza is exposed, form the main dataset for this study. The aim of this study is to describe and interpret the strata starting at the bed scale, followed by stratal element scale, lobe scale and ultimately fan scale. Strata of the Kaza Group comprise six sedimentary facies representing deposition from a variety of fluid and cohesive sediment gravity flows. These, in turn, populate seven stratal elements that are defined by their basal contact, cross-sectional geometry and internal facies distribution. The lithological characteristics of stratal elements vary little from proximal to more distal settings, but their relative abundance and stacking pattern do, which, then, forms the basis for modeling the internal architecture of lobes. Lobes typically comprise an assemblage of stratal elements, which then are systematically and predictably arranged in both space (along a single depositional transect) and time (stratigraphically upward). Lobes typically became initiated by channel avulsion. In the proximal part of the system scours up to several meters deep, several tens of meters wide are interpreted to have formed by erosion downflow of the avulsion node. Erosion also charged the flow with fine-grained sediment and on the lateral margins and downflow avulsion splays were deposited. Later flows then exploited the basin-floor topography and on the proximal basin-floor carved a feeder channel, which then fed a downflow depositional lobe. At the mouths of feeder channels flows became dispersed through a network of distributary channels that further downflow shallow and widen until eventually merging laterally in sandstone-rich terminal splays. During the lifespan of a single lobe the feeder channel remains fixed, but the distributary channel network and its associated terminal splays wander, causing them to stack and be intercalated laterally and vertically. Eventually an upstream avulsion terminates local sediment supply, causing a new lobe to be initiated elsewhere on the fan, and the process repeats.