The research that forms this thesis is a portfolio of seven published papers together with a critical review, set out below, which gives a general overview of all the work. The work covers a period from the 1990s until 2008, with publication dates spanning a decade. The research has developed from an early interest in exploring the nature of landscape experience, responses to past and contemporary landscape designs, and what benefits people might gain from engaging with such landscapes. It has also reflected a desire to raise standards of scholarship and research in landscape architecture. The portfolio of work addresses three broad themes, interconnected but requiring different approaches in terms of method: the distinctiveness of place and design responses to it; design of public open space for the 21st century; and understanding people’s engagement with the natural environment. The research addresses the following questions and is presented under these headings, each representing a different strand or focus of attention. a) History, prototypes and local distinctiveness: what is the role of historic design prototypes in contemporary landscape architecture and how can an understanding of them enhance sensitivity to local distinctiveness in new design? b) Urban open space: how can an understanding of the history of landscape design inform the way urban open space is designed, planned and managed in the 21st century and what new paradigms might there be? c) Experiencing the landscape: how do people perceive, use and respond to green landscapes in their local environment, and what factors influence engagement with and benefit from such natural environments? The outputs in this portfolio are shown to have influenced other researchers as well as policy makers and practitioners; they are reflected in citations of the work and in government agency initiatives to develop new approaches to accessing the landscape. Finally, a conceptual framework is offered for understanding and responding to people’s diverse experiences of landscape.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. 14 August 2015 / Soweto is identified as an air pollution hot spot area which is characteristic of poor air quality where ambient air pollutant concentrations frequently exceed the South African Ambient Air Quality Standards. Urban greening programmes are seen as a way for cities to work towards reducing air pollution, offsetting greenhouse gas emissions and improve ambient air quality. The City of Johannesburg embarked on the Greening Soweto project in 2006 where many degraded open spaces were transformed into urban green parks and 6000 trees were planted. The urban parks and trees are believed to serve several environmental benefits; one of which includes the improvement in local ambient air quality. The aim of this research was to assess and compare the local ambient air quality situation at two different urban park types in close proximity, Thokoza Park (older trees) and Petrus Molefe Eco-Park (young trees), in Soweto and establish whether the air pollutants measured at the urban parks were lower compared to the urban background conditions. Furthermore, this study assessed whether the ambient concentrations of the selected criteria air pollutants were within the South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards. Three ambient air quality monitoring campaigns were conducted during the spring (October) and winter (June and July) seasons of 2013 and 2014 with the use of a mobile air quality monitoring station. The findings of this research suggest that urban trees in Thokoza Park and Petrus Molefe Eco-Park has the greatest potential to improve air quality in Soweto mainly through changes in local meteorological conditions, specifically for temperature and wind fields, rather than direct removal of air pollutants. Differences in the concentrations of the air pollutants at the different sites showed a strong relationship with changes in temperature, wind speed and direction and emission source types. A significant difference in air pollutant concentrations between the two urban park types was only found for particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) and CO2. In general, lower air pollutant concentrations were recorded at the urban parks compared to the urban background site, particularly during the spring season. This study also suggests that the urban trees could represent a potential O3 sink during the spring and winter seasons and for NOx during the spring season. Exceedances of the South African Ambient Air Quality Standards at the two urban parks were only observed for PM10 and PM2.5 during the winter season of 2014. PM10 and PM2.5 and NOx were identified to be air pollutants of concern at the urban parks in comparison to other criteria air pollutants assessed in this study. Maximum daily concentrations of 255 μg/m3 for PM10 and 126 μg/m3 for PM2.5 and a maximum hourly concentration of 92 ppb for NOx were recorded at the parks during winter season

Thesis (M.A.)--Ohio University, June, 2006. / Title from PDF t.p. Includes bibliographical references (p. 85-96)

城市發展被認為是導致本土物種滅絶的最主要原因，對鳥類群落結構有著極其重要的影響。雖然香港的城市化程度非常高，但對於鳥類尤其候鳥來說，其仍具有很高的保育價值。截至目前，有關城市化及多尺度生境因素對香港城市鳥類群落的影響的研究還非常少。 / 在城市景觀中，公園是鳥類多樣性的熱點地區。本研究選取了30個公園 (15個位於發達地區，15個位於新近發展地區) 作為研究樣地，分別於2010-2011年的繁殖季和越冬季，採用樣點法調查了所有樣地的鳥類群落。結果顯示，新近發展地區的鳥類群落較發達地區的更為均勻，嵌套程度更高。但不論何種發展類型，留鳥均為城市公園中的優勢群體。發達地區有較多的食穀鳥和偏好開闊生境的鳥類，而新近發展地區則吸引了較多的食蟲鳥、食蟲食果鳥和森林專一性鳥類。發達和新近發展地區的鳥類群落結構的差異，與生境均勻性 (400米尺度)、最大林地斑塊指數 (400米尺度) 及景觀聚集度指數 (400和1000米尺度) 密切相關。 / 香港公園的鳥類群落具有明顯的季節差異。繁殖季與越冬季的鳥種組成、鳥類豐富度和多樣性均有顯著差異。與繁殖季相比，越冬季的食蟲鳥、食蟲食果鳥及在灌木層和喬木層覓食的鳥類較繁殖季明顯增多，而食穀鳥及在地面覓食的鳥類則較繁殖季減少。 / 本研究進一步探討了公園屬性、人類干擾和植被結構對不同季節的鳥類群落結構的影響。結果顯示，公園面積和訪客率對於不同季節的鳥類群落有顯著影響。不論是繁殖季還是越冬季，鳥類豐富度和多樣性均隨公園面積的增加而增加；越冬季鳥類豐富度隨訪客率增加而減少。另外，繁殖季的鳥類總密度隨訪客率增加而增加。不同種團在不同季節對生境變量的反應也有所不同。例如，候鳥、食蟲鳥和食蟲食果鳥在越冬季隨公園面積的增加而增加，但隨訪客率的增加而減少；而雜食性鳥類在繁殖期均隨公園面積和訪客率的增加而增加。 / 對于不同景觀尺度的生境變量對冬季城市鳥類群落的影響的分析結果顯示，200米尺度上的林地和草地的覆蓋度對鳥類豐富度有顯著影響。單個物種的反應上，200和400米尺度上的斑塊密度對叉尾太陽鳥 (Aethopyga christinae) 的出現與消失有最好的解釋度。與叉尾太陽鳥不同，單一尺度生境變量對暗綠繡眼鳥 (Phylloscopus proregulus)、烏鶇 (Turdus merula)、灰背鶇 (T. hortulorum)、噪鵑 (Eudynamys scolopaceus) 和喜鵲 (Pica pica) 的分佈模式具有最好的解釋度，即200或400米尺度上的植被（包括林地、灌木和草地）覆蓋度對其在特定樣地的出現與消失有顯著影響。總之，小尺度生境變量 (400米以內) 對香港城市鳥類群落的影響值得更多關注。 / 最後，本文還探究了景觀 (400米) 和斑塊尺度上的生境變量對冬季鳥類群落的共同影響。非度量多維標度 (Non-metric Multi-Dimensional Scaling) 分析結果顯示，景觀尺度上的林地比例和斑塊密度及斑塊尺度上的樹木密度對鳥類分佈有強烈影響。多尺度交叉模型對候鳥、食穀鳥、食蟲鳥和食蟲食果鳥的分佈均有很好的解釋度。另外，相對于單一的景觀或斑塊尺度模型，多尺度交叉模型也能更好地解釋單個物種的分佈模式。可以說，景觀變量的加入能大大提高單一的斑塊尺度模型的預測能力。綜上，同時考慮景觀和斑塊尺度上生境變量對鳥類群落的共同影響是非常必要的。 / 本研究首次系統地研究了香港城市公園的鳥類群落結構及多尺度生境變數對鳥類分佈的影響；研究結果能為土地擁有者和公園管理者更好的保育城市生態系統提供理論依據。 / Urban development affects avian community structure dramatically, and it is considered a major cause of native species extinction. Hong Kong is a highly urbanized city, but has great conservation values for birds particularly migrants. There is a paucity of information on the effects of urbanization and multi-scale habitat characteristics on urban birds in Hong Kong. / Parks are hotspots of avian diversity in urban landscapes. Thirty parks, scattered throughout the territory, were selected as sampling sites from developed and new growth areas. Bird community structure was studied in the breeding and wintering seasons in 2010-2011. Regarding the effects of urbanization, bird communities in the new growth areas were more homogeneous and nested than those in the developed areas. Residents dominated urban parks in both development types. More granivores and open-habitat species, but fewer insectivores, insectivore-frugivores, and forest-specialist birds appeared in the developed areas than in the new growth areas. These differences were strongly associated with habitat evenness and largest patch index for woodland at 400-m scale and contagion index at 400- and 1000-m scales. / There were obvious seasonal differences in urban bird communities. Species composition, richness, and diversity were significantly different between the breeding and wintering seasons. Compared to breeding bird communities, more insectivores, insectivore-frugivores, and species feeding on plants, but less granivores and species feeding on the ground appeared in the wintering season. / The effects of park attributes, human disturbance, and vegetation structure on the seasonal differences were determined. Species richness and diversity were positively affected by park size in both seasons. Species richness was negatively affected by visitor rate in the wintering season. Total bird density increased with visitor rate, but only in the breeding season. In other words, park size and visitor rate were the major factors affecting bird communities in both seasons. Moreover, different species groups had different responses to habitat characteristics in different seasons. For examples, migrants, insectivores, and insectivore-frugivores were positively affected by park size, but negatively by visitor rate in the wintering season. However, omnivores in the breeding season increased with both park size and visitor rate. / The effects of habitat characteristics at five landscape scales on wintering bird communities were addressed. Total species richness was significantly affected by the availability of woodland and grassland at 200-m scale. For the six selected species, the incidence of Fork-tailed Sunbird (Aethopyga christinae) was affected by patch density, positively at 200-m scale but negatively at 400-m scale, and the incidences of the other five species (including Pallas's Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus, Common Blackbird Turdus merula, Grey-backed Thrush T. hortulorum, Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus, and Eurasian Magpie Pica pica) were best predicted by the availability of greenspaces within 400 m. Consequently, factors at fine scales (within 400 m) should be more concerned while conserving birds in Hong Kong. / Finally, the cross-scale effects of habitat measurements at 400-m landscape and local scale on wintering bird communities were examined. The percentage of woodland and patch density at landscape scale, and tree density at local scale were mostly strongly correlated with species distribution. Most species groups and the incidences of individual species were better predicted by cross-scale approaches, and landscape characteristics increased the efficiency of local-only models. It is necessary to simultaneously consider the joint effects of landscape- and local-scale characteristics on birds in urban environments. / This research is the first to systematically study bird communities in urban parks of Hong Kong, and determine the factors influencing bird distribution patterns at multiple scales. The knowledge acquired would help land owners and park managers to conserve a more diverse ecosystem in Hong Kong. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Zhou, Daqing. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 144-165). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese. / Abstract --- p.I / Acknowledgements --- p.VI / Table of Contents --- p.VIII / List of Tables --- p.XIII / List of Figures --- p.XVI / List of Appendices --- p.XVIII / Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- Background --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Bird community ecology and its developments --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Effects of urbanization on urban bird communities --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Urbanization --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Major impacts of urbanization --- p.5 / Chapter 1.3 --- Effects of multi-scale habitat characteristics on bird communities --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Importance of spatial scale --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Effects of local-scale habitat characteristics on urban bird community --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3.2.1 --- Park attributes --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3.2.2 --- Human disturbance --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.2.3 --- Vegetation configuration --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3.3 --- Effects of landscape-scale habitat characteristics on urban bird community --- p.13 / Chapter 1.3.3.1 --- Various landscape-scale habitat characteristics --- p.14 / Chapter 1.3.3.2 --- Scalar effects of landscape-scale habitat characteristics --- p.16 / Chapter 1.3.3.3 --- Combined effects of local- and landscape-scale habitat characteristics --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4 --- Overview of Hong Kong --- p.18 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- General situation --- p.18 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- Knowledge gaps --- p.20 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- Research significances --- p.21 / Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- Avian community structure of urban parks in developed and new growth areas: A landscape-scale study in Southeast Asia --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2 --- Methods --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Study area --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Bird census --- p.27 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Landscape-level habitat factors at 400- and 1000-m scales --- p.36 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Data analyses --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2.4.1 --- Community attributes --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2.4.2 --- Species groups --- p.39 / Chapter 2.2.4.3 --- Species composition --- p.39 / Chapter 2.2.4.4 --- Nestedness --- p.41 / Chapter 2.2.4.5 --- Community responses to landscape-scale habitat factors --- p.41 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.42 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Comparisons of community attributes between developed and new growth areas --- p.43 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Responses of species groups to the development type --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Differences in species composition --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Nestedness of developed and new growth areas --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Responses of bird community to landscape-scale habitat factors --- p.49 / Chapter 2.4 --- Discussion --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Bird community structure for the two development types --- p.50 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Responses to landscape-scale habitat factors at two spatial scales --- p.56 / Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- Seasonal dynamics of bird community structure in urban parks of Hong Kong --- p.58 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.58 / Chapter 3.2 --- Methods --- p.59 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Study area --- p.59 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Bird census --- p.60 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Data analyses --- p.62 / Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.64 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Differences in community attributes --- p.66 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Differences in the composition of species groups --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Differences in individual species composition --- p.68 / Chapter 3.3.4 --- Nestedness pattern of breeding and wintering bird communities --- p.69 / Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion --- p.69 / Chapter 3.5 --- Conclusions --- p.73 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- How would size, age, human disturbance, and vegetation structure affect bird communities of urban parks in different seasons? --- p.74 / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.74 / Chapter 4.2 --- Methods --- p.76 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Study area --- p.76 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Bird census --- p.78 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Measurements of human disturbance --- p.78 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Vegetation structure --- p.79 / Chapter 4.2.5 --- Data analyses --- p.80 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results --- p.82 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Species number --- p.83 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Species diversity --- p.85 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Total bird density --- p.86 / Chapter 4.3.4 --- Responses of seasonal status classes and feeding guilds --- p.86 / Chapter 4.4 --- Discussion --- p.89 / Chapter 4.5 --- Conclusions --- p.93 / Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- How did spatial scale affect the responses of wintering bird communities in urban parks? The importance of small landscape-scale approaches --- p.95 / Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.95 / Chapter 5.2 --- Methods --- p.97 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Study area --- p.97 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- Bird census --- p.98 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Habitat characteristics at five landscape scales --- p.99 / Chapter 5.2.4 --- Data analyses --- p.102 / Chapter 5.3 --- Results --- p.103 / Chapter 5.3.1 --- Species selected in this study --- p.103 / Chapter 5.3.2 --- Responses of total species richness to five landscape-scale habitat characteristics --- p.105 / Chapter 5.3.3 --- Responses of six specific species to five landscape-scale habitat characteristics --- p.106 / Chapter 5.4 --- Discussion --- p.109 / Chapter 5.4.1 --- Most influential spatial scales --- p.109 / Chapter 5.4.2 --- Effects of habitat availability and patch distribution at varying scales --- p.111 / Chapter 5.5 --- Conclusions --- p.113 / Chapter CHAPTER 6 --- Cross-Scale effects of landscape- and local-scale habitat characteristics on wintering bird communities in highly urbanized Hong Kong --- p.115 / Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.115 / Chapter 6.2 --- Methods --- p.117 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Study area --- p.117 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Bird census --- p.119 / Chapter 6.2.3 --- Landscape-scale habitat characteristics --- p.119 / Chapter 6.2.4 --- Local-scale habitat characteristics --- p.121 / Chapter 6.2.5 --- Data analyses --- p.122 / Chapter 6.2.5.1 --- Correlation analyses --- p.122 / Chapter 6.2.5.2 --- Cross-scale effects of landscape- and local-scale characteristics on bird communities --- p.123 / Chapter 6.2.5.3 --- Cross-scale effects of landscape- and local-scale characteristics on species groups --- p.125 / Chapter 6.2.5.4 --- Comparison between single-scale and cross-scale approaches for some specific species --- p.125 / Chapter 6.3 --- Results --- p.126 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Community responses to landscape- and local-scale habitat characteristics --- p.126 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Responses of species groups --- p.128 / Chapter 6.3.3 --- Responses of six individual species --- p.130 / Chapter 6.4 --- Discussion --- p.131 / Chapter 6.4.1 --- Responses of community and species groups to landscape- and local-scale habitat characteristics --- p.131 / Chapter 6.4.2 --- Landscape- versus local-scale habitat characteristics --- p.135 / Chapter 6.5 --- Conclusions --- p.136 / Chapter CHAPTER 7 --- General conclusions --- p.138 / Chapter 7.1 --- Major results and recommendations --- p.138 / Chapter 7.2 --- Further investigations --- p.142 / References --- p.144 / Appendices --- p.166 / Publications --- p.188

Wong Chun Yin. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 137-143). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xi / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xv / LIST OF ACRONYMS --- p.xvi / Chapter CHAPTER ONE - --- INTRODUCTION / Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Research background --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Urban park functions and challenges --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Urban park acoustic environment --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3 --- Urban Parks in Hong Kong --- p.5 / Chapter 1.4 --- Conceptual framework and research objectives --- p.7 / Chapter 1.5 --- Research significance --- p.9 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO - --- LITERATURE REVIEW / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.11 / Chapter 2.2 --- Changing approach in managing noise problem in living environment: from noise control to soundscape planning --- p.12 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Noise control: sound (noise) as a waste to avoid --- p.12 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Soundscape planning: sound as a resource to utilize --- p.12 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Soundscape as a guiding principle --- p.13 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- The importance of soundscape --- p.14 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Criteria for soundscape planning --- p.15 / Chapter 2.2.5.1 --- Sound intensity and quietness --- p.15 / Chapter 2.2.5.2 --- "Sound source, soundscape clarity and sound preference" --- p.16 / Chapter 2.2.5.3 --- "Sound information content, sound-image congruence and acoustic masking" --- p.18 / Chapter 2.2.5.4 --- Acoustic comfort --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2.5.5 --- Acoustic objectives --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2.6 --- From soundscape planning to environmental design --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3 --- Impact of road traffic noise on human --- p.21 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Detection of road traffic noise --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Response to road traffic noise --- p.22 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Reaction to noise --- p.23 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Physiological response --- p.24 / Chapter 2.3.2.3 --- Behavioural response --- p.24 / Chapter 2.3.2.4 --- Cognitive response --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Moderating factors for road traffic noise impact --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3.3.1 --- Auditory masking --- p.25 / Chapter 2.3.3.2 --- Visual screening --- p.26 / Chapter 2.4 --- Previous studies on urban park soundscape --- p.27 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Focus on sound intensity --- p.27 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Sound as a resource to utilize --- p.28 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Recommendations on park design --- p.29 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Research gaps --- p.31 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE - --- METHODOLOGY / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.33 / Chapter 3.2 --- Site selection --- p.33 / Chapter 3.3 --- Characterizing urban park soundscape --- p.38 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Identification of sound source --- p.38 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Field Measurement of Sound intensity and frequency spectrum --- p.40 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Contribution from road traffic noise --- p.41 / Chapter 3.3.4 --- Questionnaire design to study human perception --- p.43 / Chapter 3.3.5 --- Sampling strategy --- p.47 / Chapter 3.4 --- Summary --- p.48 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR - --- SOUNDSCAPE OF URBAN PARKS IN HONG KONG / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.50 / Chapter 4.2 --- Sound source --- p.50 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Mechanical sounds --- p.57 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Natural sounds --- p.57 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Man-made sounds --- p.59 / Chapter 4.2.4 --- Soundscape clarity --- p.59 / Chapter 4.3 --- Sound Intensity --- p.63 / Chapter 4.4 --- Contribution from road traffic noise to urban park sound intensity --- p.66 / Chapter 4.5 --- Frequency spectrum --- p.73 / Chapter 4.6 --- Effect of topographic variations --- p.76 / Chapter 4.7 --- Conclusion --- p.82 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE - --- PARK VISITOR'S PERCEPTION ON URBAN PARK SOUNDSCAPE / Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.84 / Chapter 5.2 --- Urban park noisiness --- p.84 / Chapter 5.3 --- Sound source --- p.85 / Chapter 5.4 --- Sound preference --- p.87 / Chapter 5.5 --- Effect of park size --- p.93 / Chapter 5.6 --- Effect of park function --- p.94 / Chapter 5.7 --- Effect of fountain --- p.95 / Chapter 5.8 --- Perceived importance of tranquility --- p.96 / Chapter 5.9 --- Conclusion --- p.101 / Chapter CHAPTER SIX - --- IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON URBAN PARK SOUNDSCAPE DESIGN / Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.102 / Chapter 6.2 --- Soundscape of urban parks in Hong Kong: undesirable yet being adapted… --- p.102 / Chapter 6.3 --- Enhancing soundscape identity of urban parks --- p.103 / Chapter 6.4 --- Small parks --- p.104 / Chapter 6.5 --- Large parks --- p.107 / Chapter 6.6 --- Conclusion --- p.109 / Chapter CHAPTER SEVEN - --- CONCLUSION / Chapter 7.1 --- Introduction --- p.110 / Chapter 7.2 --- Summary of findings --- p.110 / Chapter 7.3 --- Limitations of the research --- p.115 / Chapter 7.3.1 --- Park visitor's aspiration for desirable soundscape --- p.115 / Chapter 7.4 --- Further studies for designing a desirable urban park soundscape --- p.116 / APPENDIX ONE --- p.118 / APPENDIX TWO --- p.122 / REFERENCES --- p.137

<p>På grund av världens växande befolkning och urbaniseringen blir problem relaterade till fenomenet urbana värmeöar mer och mer påtagliga. Eftersom urbana parker kan minska påfrestningen skapad av urbana värmeöar kan de vara ett kraftfullt verktyg vid klimatdesign i städer. Temperaturen nära en yta bestäms av energiutbytet mellan ytan och luften ovanför och det är därför nödvändigt att man förstår energibalansen vid markytan för att kunna hantera parkernas mikroklimat. Syftet med det här arbetet var att studera skillnaderna mellan energibalansen för olika ytor i parken och i dess omgivning och att relatera skillnaderna i energibalanserna till temperaturskillnaderna.</p><p>Mätningarna utfördes under tre klara sommardagar i parken Humlegården i centrala Stockholm. Mätutrustningen var monterad på en kärra som flyttades från mätplats till mätplats. Mätplatserna representerade olika typiska ytor i Humlegården och i dess omgivning: en skuggad och en öppen gräsmatta, en öppen och en skuggad grusyta och två asfaltytor, varav en löper i nord-sydlig riktning och en i öst-västlig riktning.</p><p>Energiflödena beräknades med hjälp av data för luft- och yttemperatur, vindhastighet, luftfuktighet och nettostrålning.</p><p>Resultaten visade att den tydligaste skillnaden mellan gräs- och grusytorna i parken var att gräsytorna hade ett större nedåtriktat latent värmeflöde under natten och ett mindre markvärmeflöde under hela dygnet. Den mest distinkta skillnaden mellan de skuggade och öppna ytorna i parken var att de skuggade ytorna hade mindre energiflöden under dagen och att de till skillnad från de andra ytorna hade ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde under dagen. Den största skillnaden mellan ytorna i och utanför parken var att asfaltytorna hade ett större uppåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde och markvärmeflöde under natten.</p><p>Under natten var den svalaste mätplasten den öppna gräsmattan, vilken också var den enda mätplasten med ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde under natten. Jämfört med de andra ickeskuggade mätplasterna hade den öppna gräsmattan ett mindre markvärmeflöde. Varmaste mätplasterna under natten var asfaltytorna som även hade ett större uppåtriktat sensibelt och markvärmeflöde än de andra ytorna. Under dagen var de skuggade ytorna i parken de svalaste platserna. De var de enda ytorna med ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde och nettostrålningen vid ytan var mindre än för de flesta andra mätplatser.</p> / <p>The world’s growing population and the increasing urbanization has made problems related to the urban heat island phenomenon to become more pronounced and since urban parks reduce the stress produced by the urban heat island they can be powerful tools in urban climate design. The temperature near the surface in a park is determined by the energy exchanges between the surface and the air above and it is therefore necessary to understand the surface energy balance of parks to intelligently manage their thermal microclimate. The objectives of this work were to study how the energy balances differ between different surfaces inside parks and in their built-up surroundings and to relate the surface energy balances to temperature differences.</p><p>Measurements were conducted during three clear summer days in the park Humlegården located in central Stockholm. The measuring instruments were mounted on a cart, which was transported from observation site to observation site. The observation sites represented typical surfaces found in an urban park and its surroundings: one shaded and one open grass surface, one open and one shaded gravel surface and two paved surfaces representing streets running in the north-south and east-west directions respectively. The energy fluxes were calculated using air and surface temperatures, wind speed, air humidity and net radiation data.</p><p>The most pronounced differences between the shaded and open surfaces in the park was that the shaded surfaces in general had smaller energy fluxes during daytime and that they had a downward directed sensible heat flux while the open surfaces had an upward directed sensible heat flux during the day. The most significant difference between the grass and the gravel surfaces in the park was that the grass surfaces had a bigger downward directed latent heat flux during the night and a smaller ground heat flux during both day and night. The largest differences between the surfaces inside the park and those in its built-up vicinities were that the paved surfaces had a larger upward directed sensible and ground heat flux during the night than the other surfaces. During the day the north-south directed paved site had a downward directed ground heat flux that was much larger than the ground heat flux for the other sites.</p><p>The coolest site during the night was the non-shaded grass surface, which was the only site with a downward directed sensible heat flux during the night. Compared to the other nonshaded sites the open grass surface had a much smaller ground heat flux. Warmest sites during the night were the paved surfaces, which had a larger upward directed sensible and ground heat flux than the other surfaces. At the built-up sites the walls also contributed with sensible heat flux, i.e. the total sensible heat flux in the built-up area was larger than what comes from the street surface only. During the day the shaded surfaces in the park were the coolest sites. The shaded surfaces had less net radiation compared to the other non-shaded surfaces and were the only sites that had a downward directed sensible heat flux.</p>

The emergence of Progressivism at the beginning of the twentieth century influenced many aspects of American society. One of those aspects was urban parks. In the latter half of the nineteenth century Frederick Law Olmsted led a nationwide implementation of "Victorian" parks. These parks featured broad expanses of turf, waterways, and trees. Olmsted and the other Victorian park leaders designed the parks to cultivate Victorian values of self-restraint and independence among the citizenry. With the rise of Progressivism the ideals of the middle class changed. Led by Theodore Roosevelt, millions of Americans embraced the "strenuous life" and its emphasis on strength and leadership. Consequently, parks changed. The new Progressive park design favored athletic facilities over places for repose. Audubon Park in New Orleans was built just as this change was occurring, and therefore provides us an opportunity to study this moment in American history in detail.

O presente estudo, de natureza qualitativa, teve por objetivo identificar os fatores motivacionais de adultos para a aderência à prática de atividade física no tempo de lazer em parques urbanos públicos da cidade de São Paulo. Pesquisas acadêmicas e movimentos sociais apresentam a relevância que os parques públicos urbanos têm para que as pessoas usufruam do seu direito à cidade. Estes espaços são cenários para ações e práticas voluntárias de atividade física, bem como para outras práticas de lazer que contribuem para a qualidade de vida da população. É ponto de concordância entre os autores que tratam da gestão do lazer que, conhecer o perfil de público e criar estratégias de aproximação com a população num processo participativo, é primeira condição para o planejamento efetivo e competente de estruturas e espaços de lazer na cidade, especialmente na política pública. Desta forma, este estudo se justificou por sistematizar e fundamentar uma prática de lazer que tem impactos significativos na oferta de atividades físicas à população no âmbito público. Também é relevante por contribuir com a tomada de decisão dos diversos agentes públicos e atores sociais na formulação de políticas públicas e projetos, principalmente para as áreas da saúde, educação, esportes, lazer e cultura. A pesquisa teve finalidade exploratória, com pesquisa bibliográfica onde foram investigadas produções acerca do lazer, da atividade física e dos parques urbanos, bem como temas correlatos, para melhor elucidar o diálogo entre estas áreas. O enfoque documental teve como objeto a documentação oficial da gestão pública, especificamente a legislação da Secretaria do Verde e do Meio do Ambiente SVMA, sua estrutura gestora, com atenção aos parques públicos urbanos e aos projetos intersetoriais. A pesquisa de campo compreendeu entrevista não estruturada com Gestores/administradores de quatro parques públicos, sendo um parque urbano em cada macrorregião da cidade de São Paulo definidas pela SVMA, com principal enfoque na gestão participativa da animação sociocultural. Incluiu também a aplicação de questionários, acerca das motivações para a prática de atividades físicas e de lazer aos frequentadores dos parques públicos urbanos e a observação participante nos mesmos equipamentos. Desta forma, produziu parâmetros conceituais que orientam o planejamento de atividades físicas e de promoção do lazer nos parques públicos por meio da animação sociocultural. A gestão participativa dos Conselhos Gestores foi considerada importante estratégia para o desenvolvimento de programação permanente, coerente com o perfil, com os valores e com as expectativas da população. Tanto os parâmetros conceituais quanto a gestão participativa foram considerados prerrogativas para a efetividade de projetos e políticas públicas para a consolidação do direito ao lazer, representado principalmente pelo uso público de parques urbanos da cidade de São Paulo / The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify adult motivational factors for adhesion to physical activity during leisure time in public urban parks in the city of São Paulo. Academic researches and social movements present the relevance that urban public parks have for people on the enjoyment their city rights. These spaces are scenarios for actions and voluntary practices of physical activity, as well as for other leisure practices that contribute to population life quality. It is a point of agreement among the authors who deal with leisure management, that knowing the profile of the public and creating strategies of approximation with the community in a participatory process, is the first condition for effective and competent planning of structures and leisure areas in the city, especially in public policy. Thus, this study was justified by systematizing and substantiating a leisure practice that has significant impacts on the offer of physical activities to the population in the public sphere. It is also relevant because it contributes to the decision-making of several public agents and social actors on the formulation of public policies and projects, especially in the areas of health, education, sports, leisure and culture. The research had an exploratory purpose, with a bibliographical survey in which were investigated productions concerning leisure, physical activity and urban parks, as well as related themes, to better elucidate the dialogue between these areas. The documentary focus had as its aim the official documentation of public management, specifically the legislation of the Secretaria do Verde e do Meio Ambiente (SVMA), its management structure, with attention to urban public parks and intersectoral projects. The field research consisted of an unstructured interview with managers / administrators of four public parks, being one urban park in each macro-region of the city of São Paulo defined by SVMA, with a main focus on participatory management of socio-cultural animation. It also included the application of questionnaires, about the motivations for the practice of physical and leisure activities to the public of the urban public parks and the participant observation in the same equipments. In this way, it produced conceptual parameters that guide the planning of physical activities and the promotion of leisure in public parks through socio-cultural animation. The participative management of the Conselhos Gestores was considered an important strategy for the development of permanent programming, consistent with the profile, values and expectations of the population. Both, conceptual parameters and participatory management were considered prerogatives for the effectiveness of projects and public policies for the consolidation of the right of leisure, mainly represented by the public use of urban parks in the city of São Paulo

Nesta tese o parque urbano brasileiro dos primeiros anos do século XXI é apresentado como uma fi gura diferente dos parques dos séculos XIX e XX. As diferenças dizem respeito, principalmente, aos programas de uso e à distribuição pelo espaço urbano. Jardins urbanos que se destinavam à fruição das elites no século XIX e das massas no século XX apresentam-se, entre 2000 e 2015, como fi gura híbrida, relacionada à preservação ambiental e ao lazer mas não necessariamente a ambos. Surgem novos tipos de parque, como os lineares, que tanto se apresentam em forma de conjuntos de pequenos espaços livres articulados por curso d´água, como de projetos de grande envergadura que articulam uma sequência de parques no território urbano. Em algumas capitais brasileiras, como São Paulo, Belo Horizonte, Goiânia, Brasília, Campo Grande, Vitória, Recife e Manaus, o número de parques públicos se multiplicou no período. O mesmo processo não foi observado em capitais litorâneas como Rio de Janeiro e Fortaleza, onde a orla segue como um grande parque linear. Todo o conjunto de parques vistos demonstra que houve mudança na percepção do valor do parque urbano pela sociedade brasileira, fato capitalizado pelo poder público e pela iniciativa privada. As novas características e as localizações dos parques em bairros periféricos onde a renda dos moradores é baixa impõem novos desafi os para o projeto e a gestão. / In this thesis the Brazilian urban park of the fi rst years of the 21st century is presented as a different fi gure from the parks of the 19th and 20th centuries. The differences mainly concern uses and distribution in the urban space. Urban gardens for the enjoyment of elites in the nineteenth century and the masses in the twentieth century are, between 2000 and 2015, as a hybrid fi gure, related to environmental preservation and leisure, but not necessarily to both. At that time new types of parks appeared, such as linear ones, which are in the form of sets of small free spaces articulated by watercourse, as well as large-scale projects that articulate a sequence of parks in the urban territory. In some Brazilian capitals, such as Sao Paulo, Belo Horizonte, Goiania, Brasilia, Campo Grande, Vitoria, Recife and Manaus, the number of public parks has multiplied in this period. The same process was not observed in coastal capitals like Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza, where the border follows as a large linear park. The whole set of parks seen shows that there was a change in the perception of the value of the urban park by Brazilian society, a fact capitalized by the public power and private initiative. The new features and locations of parks - in neighborhoods where residents\' incomes are low - create new challenges for design and management.

A ação da municipalidade de São Paulo no provimento de áreas verdes de recreação foi investigada desde o final do século XIX, quando se criou um órgão administrativo específico para tratar das áreas verdes municipais, até os dias de hoje. Este intervalo de tempo foi subdividido em períodos marcados por mudanças na organização, nas atribuições e na produção deste órgão e também por mudanças nos hábitos e nas necessidades de lazer da população. A análise se deu em torno de quatro variáveis, tratadas sistematicamente em cada período, quais sejam: as formas de lazer nas áreas verdes da cidade; a organização administrativa para atender às demandas por áreas verdes de lazer; a produção de áreas verdes pelo poder municipal; planos e projetos de áreas verdes de recreação. Para analisar o desempenho da Prefeitura no período mais recente, fizeram-se entrevistas com os freqüentadores de oito parques municipais: Aclimação, Anhanguera, Carmo, Guarapiranga, Ibirapuera, Luz, Piqueri e Previdência. Concluiu-se que o provimento de áreas verdes de lazer pela Prefeitura se deu de maneira irregular, sem planejamento e por decisões que escapavam ao controle do órgão administrativo competente. Viu-se também que a maior parte da produção dos projetos se deu distanciada dos debates programáticos e estéticos contemporâneos a cada período considerado. A pesquisa de campo realizada com os freqüentadores dos oito parques selecionados mostrou a importância que a maior parte deles atribui aos valores paisagístico-ambientais dos parques, revelando ao mesmo tempo que a falta de cuidado com o ambiente do parque como um todo, as falhas de manutenção de espaços ou equipamentos específicos e a falta de segurança, são os aspectos que mais os incomodam nos parques municipais. / The performance of the Municipality of São Paulo in providing green recreation areas, was investigated from the end of 19th century when the Administration of Public Gardens was created to our days. This period encompasses smaller periods which correspond to changes in the way the later named Department of Parks and Green Areas answered to the claim for green recreation areas. The users\' habits have changed as well during this time. The analysis was done taking into account four aspects that suffered changes: the habits os leisure in green areas; the Municipality organization to meet the demand for green recreation areas; the actual production of the Municipality throughout this century; plans and projects for public green areas. To evaluate the Municipality performance nowadays, interviews have been done with users of eight municipal parks. The conclusion is that the provision of public green recreation areas by the Department of Parks was done in an irregular way, without any planning, at the mercy of eventualities and oppotunities. It was also concluded that the production of municipal parks was done without considering contemporary debates about park programs and design. The research with park users showed that the most important reason why they go to parks is the landscape and \"atmosphere\". Another finding shown by this research is that users are critical of the lack of concern found there and the absence of maintenance and safety observable in such parks.