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A research report submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (International Relations), 2017 / Any harm or violence that is perpetrated against a person’s will, and that results from power inequalities based on gender roles continues to be an incessant, focal and universal human rights issue. Typically shrouded in a culture of silence, the continuation of and rise in genderspecific crimes demands the increased necessary attention and action for its decrease and ultimate eradication. This paper explores the impact and efficacy of gender-equality related norms underpinning international instruments aimed at reducing gender-specific crimes. Assessing both the global human rights regime in place at an international level, and how efforts to reduce and eradicate the gender-specific crimes of female infanticide and honour crimes are reconceptualised and adopted at a national level, this paper utilises a conceptual framework of norm realisation to understand the observed variation in the outcomes of the different cases and contexts of India and Turkey. It concludes by evaluating the extent of the realisation of gender-related norms, outlining and analysing the reasons for the observed variation as well as suggesting policy recommendations to increase the success of future combative efforts intended to reduce gender-specific crimes, gender-based violence and gender inequality. / XL2018

Investigar a questão da violência, particularizando para a chamada de violência doméstica contra a mulher, implica, inicialmente, em identificar como ela é definida e o que se observa, a começar pelo que traz o dicionário, que salienta três aspectos, falando da qualidade do que é violento, do ato violento em si, e do ato de violentar, que são muitos os ângulos pelos quais ela pode ser visualizada. É possível adotar como siginificado mais geral do termo que se trata de uma ação que evidencia brutalidade, abuso, agressão, constrangimento e desrespeito para com uma outra pessoa. De outro lado, por se ter um objetivo de pesquisa empírica, torna-se necessário que se contextualize e delimite a abordagem do estudo. A literatura tem mostrado que são muitas as transformações ocorridas na estrutura das relações familiares, no vínculo conjugal, nos padrões de comportamentos e relacionamento entre os sexos; contudo, essas mudanças parecem ter alterado pouco o problema da violência doméstica contra a mulher, que dispõe, na atualidade, de maior visibilidade, mas que ainda está longe de uma compreensão mais clara e aprofundada da questão, o que justifica sejam feitas novas investigações. Essa pesquisa tem, assim, como objetivo geral, analisar desde a frequência de ocorrência de denúncia de violência contra a mulher, em Delegacia de Defesa da Mulher (DDM), em dois anos seguidos, em cidade de grande porte, até as variáveis relacionadas ao perfil da vítima, do agressor, do relacionamento mantido pelos casais, razões do não seguimento do processo; esta é, portanto, quantitativa e de cunho descritivo, tem por base documentos em que está registrada a visão das mulheres que vivenciaram violência doméstica por parte de seu marido/companheiro e a registraram na DDM de Goiânia, noa anos de 1999 e 2000. Os dados mostram que é alta a frequência tanto da Lesão Corporal quanto da Ameaça (1999 = 885; 2000 = 1833), bem como que há um aumento siginificativo de um ano para outro, o que corrobora com o encontrado na literatura. Os resultados mostram que as vítimas têm idade que varia de 15 a 55 anos, estão em união consensual (57,6%) ou legal (42,4%), cerca de 60% exerce atividade remunerada e na maioria das vezes é ela própria quem faz a denúncia; por outro lado, há um número elevado de mulheres que relatam que a violência ocorre há bastante tempo, bem como de que já denunciaram em outros momentos, voltanto atrás por razões avariadas, que incluem até promessas de mudança de comportamento do marido/companheiro A discussão dos dados centra-se no levantamento de possíveis interpretações quer para o aumento da violência doméstica, salientando as questões ligadas à ampla distribuição etária das vítimas, indicando um fenômeno que perdura, às diferenças na educação do homem e da mulher e o poder que é, em geral, atribuído a ele, à escolaridade e à oportunidade de obtenção de trabalho para cada um dos sexos e finalmente, quais fatores poderiam ser os responsáveis pelo fato de que a grande maioria das mulheres vítimas de violência doméstica, que fazem a denúncia, logo a seguir desistem dela, retirando sua queixa, voltando para a casa e vendo, depois de algum tempo, a situação de violência ser reiniciada, o que levanta a pergunta sobre qual seria, em verdade, a sua expectativa em relação à atuação da DDM. / This research has as objectives investigate the issue of violence, specifically the domestic violence against women. This investigation implies in identifying how violence is defined and what is observed, beginning with what is mentioned in the dictionary, which emphasizes three aspects: the quality of what is violent, the violent act itself and the act of violating - many are the point of views it is possible to glance from. It is possible to adopt the more general meaning of this concept, which is about an action that makes visible brutality, abuse, aggression, constraint and disrespect to another person. On the other hand, by having an objective of empirical research, it becomes necessary to bring into context and delimit the approach of this study. Literature has shown that many are the transformations that took place in the structure of the relations inside the family, in the conjugal bound, in the patterns of behavior and relationship between the genders. Although, all this changes seem to have altered very little the problem of domestic violence against women - which has more visibility nowadays, but still far from a clearer and deeper comprehension of this issue - what justifies that more investigations to be done. This research has as general objective analyze since the frequency of denounces of violence against women registered in police station specialized in defense of women (DDM) in the period of two years in a city of big size, until the variables connected to the features of the victims, the aggressor, the relation kept between the couples, the reasons of not following the lawsuit. The present research has a qualitative and descriptive approach, is based documents in which is registered the point of view of women who have gone through domestic violence perpetrated by husband/mate and pressed charges in the DDM of Goiânia in the years of 1999 and 2000. Data show that the frequency is high both for Corporal Damage and Threaten (1999 - 885; 2000 - 1833) and that there is an expressive increase from the first year to the following - which corroborates what, was found in the literature. Results show that the victims has age from 15 to 55 years, being in non-legalized unions (57,6%) ou civil marriage (42,4%), nearly 60% work in paid activities, and in most of times it is the woman herself who makes the denounce. On the other hand, there are a high number of women who mention that the violence has been occurring for a long time, and the they had already denounced in the past, changing their minds for various reasons, including until promises of change of behavior made by the husband/mate. The discussion of the data collected focuses in the survey of possible interpretations for the increase of domestic violence, emphasizing the issues connected to the wide age distribution of the victims, pointing to a phenomena that remains, despite the differences in the education of man and woman and the power which is imputed to him, the scholarship and opportunity of getting a job for each gender and finally, which factors may be the reasons of the fact that most part of women, who are victim of domestic violence, that press charges, in little time give up and quit it, going back home and seeing, in little time, the situation of violence begin once again, what makes the question of what would be the true expectation towards the actuation of the DDM.

Estudo das crenças integrantes do Argumento de Vida de mulheres que sofreram agressão de seus maridos ou companhei ros. Trata-se de uma pesquisa \"ex-post facto\" realizada com populações atendidas na 2ª Delegacia de Polícia de Defesa da Mulher e no Centro de Saúde Dr. Rubens Monteiro Arruda, no bairro de Santo Amaro, na cidade de são Paulo (SP), Brasil. Na forma como é apresentada, esta pesquisa pode ser considerada inédita na área de Análise Transacional. Com ela procurou-se conhecer as crenças resultantes das experiências de vida com que cada mulher respondente construiu seu modelo de mundo. Reconhece-se que tal comportamento, por mais incongruente que seja, possui um sentido quando é analisado dentro do contexto limitado de escolhas geradas pelo próprio modelo. A interpretação dos resultados permitiu concluir que as mulheres da 2ª Delegacia de Polícia de Defesa de Mulheres e as do Centro de Saúde Rubens Monteiro Arruda, diferem em relação a maioria das crenças. As do primeiro grupo tendem a ter crenças de baixa autovalorização e de supervalorização do parceiro e, por isso, tendem a ser ,agredidas. / Study of believes integrating life script of women that suffered agression from their husbands or companions. It is an \"ex-post facto\" research done with the population attended by the Second Police District of Women Defense and Health Center Doctor Rubens Monteiro Arruda, in the district of Santo Amaro, in the city of São Paulo (SP), Brazil. In the form that it is presented, this research can be considered unheard in the area of Transactional Analysis. With it one tried to get to know the believes resulting from life experiences with which every respondent woman built their life model. It is recognized that every behaviour, the more incongruent it is, owns a sense, when analysed inside the limited context of choices generated by the own model. The interpretation of results permitted to conclude that, those women from the Second Police District and those from the Health Center Rubens Monteiro Arruda, differ in relation to the majority of the believes. The ones from the first group tend to have, believes of low self-value and super valorization of the companion and, for this reason, they tend to be victims of agression.

Costa Rica is heralded as a leader in social and environmental issues and an example of a successful development story. However, how does this singular narrative minimize the more complex lived experiences of people? I introduce nuances to the story of Costa Rica by centering the lived experiences of women, drawing on primary data from questionnaires and interviews, and situating my research within the long history of cooperatives in Costa Rica, to learn more about issues women face and opportunities these institutions may offer. When looking through the lens of everyday experiences, we see that despite the significant progress in creating a safe country for all, women still experience inequality, discrimination, and violence. My hope is by including women’s voices, we move beyond the “single story” toward a more nuanced understanding of multilayered lives of Costa Rican women and an appreciation for the opportunities they seek and create.

This dissertation contains four essays on human capital, labor and development economics. The first two chapters study how exposure to particular labor markets during childhood determines the formation of industry-specific human capital generating longterm consequences in terms of adult criminal behavior, labor outcomes and state legitimacy. The third chapter explores how criminal capital developed during childhood can be exported to other locations generating spillover effects on human capital accumulation. Finally, the last chapter studies how improving access to justice for women affects children’s outcomes. Chapter 1, “Making a Narco: Childhood Exposure to Illegal Labor Markets and Criminal Life Paths”, shows that exposing children to illegal labor markets makes them more likely to be criminals as adults. I exploit the timing of a large anti-drug policy in Colombia that shifted cocaine production to locations in Peru that were well-suited to growing coca. In these areas, children harvest coca leaves and transport processed cocaine. Using variation across locations, years, and cohorts, combined with administrative data on the universe of individuals in prison in Peru, affected children are 30% more likely to be incarcerated for violent and drug-related crimes as adults. The biggest impacts on adult criminality are seen among children who experienced high coca prices in their early teens, the age when child labor responds the most. No effect is found for individuals that grow up working in places where the coca produced goes primarily to the legal sector, implying that it is the accumulation of human capital specific to the illegal industry that fosters criminal careers. As children involved in the illegal industry learn how to navigate outside the rule of law, they also lose trust in government institutions. However, consistent with a model of parental incentives for human capital investments in children, the rollout of a conditional cash transfer program that encourages schooling mitigates the ef- fects of exposure to illegal industries. Finally, I show how the program can be targeted by taking into account the geographic distribution of coca suitability and spatial spillovers. Overall, this paper takes a first step towards understanding how criminals are formed by unpacking the way in which crime-specific human capital is developed at the expense of formal human capital in “bad locations.” While my first chapter focuses on low-skilled labor and criminal capital, my second chapter studies the expansion of high-skilled labor markets. In Chapter 2, “Long-term Effects of Temporary Labor Demand: Free Trade Zones, Female Education and Marriage Market Outcomes in the Dominican Republic”, I exploit the sudden and massive growth of female factory jobs in free trade zones (FTZs) in the Dominican Republic in the 1990s, and subsequent decline in the 2000s, to provide the first evidence that even relatively brief episodes of preferential trade treatments for export industries may have permanent effects on human capital levels and female empowerment. Focusing on a sample of provinces that established FTZs and exploiting variation in the opening of zones and age of women at the time of opening, I show that the FTZs’ openings led to a large and very robust increase in girls’ education. The effect persists after a decline in FTZs’ jobs in the 2000s following the end of a trade agreement with the U.S. and an increase in competition from Asia. The reason appears to be that the increase in some girls’ education changed marriage markets: girls whose education increased due to the FTZs’ openings married later, had better matches with more stable marriages, gave birth later, and had children who were more likely to survive infancy. In sum, the evidence in this paper indicates that labor markets can improve female outcomes in developing countries through general equilibrium effects in the education and marriage markets. Another question I address in my dissertation is whether criminal capital developed during childhood can be exported to other locations. In the first chapter, I find that individuals take skills related to the illegal drug industry with them when they move to other districts, even when they move to districts without significant illegal industries. Chapter 3, “Exporting Criminal Capital: The Effect of U.S. Deportations on Gang Expansion and Human Capital in Central America”, provides new evidence on how an increase in criminal capital due to deportations from the US affects human capital investments in El Salvador. In 1996, the U.S. Illegal Immigration Responsibility Act drastically increased the number of criminal deportations. In particular, the leaders of large gangs in Los Angeles were sent back to their countries. In addition to having a direct effect, the arrival of individuals bringing criminal skills and connections may have generated important spillover effects. We exploit this policy to look at the impact that deportation policies and the subsequent arrival of criminal capital to El Salvador had on several educational and economic outcomes. Using the 1996 policy and geographical variation in the exact location and delimitation of different gang groups, we find that criminal deportations led to large increase in crime and decrease in human capital accumulation for children living in these areas. Overall, this project helps to understand one of the reasons why El Salvador is among the world’s most violent peacetime countries. Understanding these effects is crucial for public policy to successfully incorporate deported criminals back into society. While my work in the Dominican Republic and the previous literature has shown that increasing the returns to education for women incentivizes schooling, there is little evidence on how domestic violence affects human capital development and whether improving access to institutions for women can address these issues. During my field work in rural areas of Peru, I found that institutions do not usually address the problems facing women or ethnic and religious minorities. For example, the police do very little to stop domestic violence. Moreover, in many cases, women do not even trust these institutions enough to report these issues. Chapter 4, “Inter-Generational Impacts of Improving Access to Justice for Women: Evidence from Peru”, exploits the introduction of women’s justice centers (WJCs) in Peru to provide causal estimates on the effects of improving access to justice for women and children. Our empirical approach uses variation over time in the distance from schools and households to the nearest WJC together with province- by-year fixed effects. After the opening of WJC, we find that primary school enrollment increases at schools that are within a 1km radius of a WJC and the effect decreases with distance. In addition, we also find that primary school second graders have better test scores in reading and mathematics. Moreover, we find that children in primary school living in household’s located near a WJC are more likely to attend school, to pass a grade and they are also less likely to drop out of school. We also provide some evidence that these improvements might be driven by an increase in the bargaining power of women inside the household and decrease in domestic violence. In sum, the evidence in this paper shows that providing access to justice for women can be a powerful tool to reduce domestic violence and increase education of children, suggesting a positive inter-generational benefit.

Estudo das crenças integrantes do Argumento de Vida de mulheres que sofreram agressão de seus maridos ou companhei ros. Trata-se de uma pesquisa \"ex-post facto\" realizada com populações atendidas na 2ª Delegacia de Polícia de Defesa da Mulher e no Centro de Saúde Dr. Rubens Monteiro Arruda, no bairro de Santo Amaro, na cidade de são Paulo (SP), Brasil. Na forma como é apresentada, esta pesquisa pode ser considerada inédita na área de Análise Transacional. Com ela procurou-se conhecer as crenças resultantes das experiências de vida com que cada mulher respondente construiu seu modelo de mundo. Reconhece-se que tal comportamento, por mais incongruente que seja, possui um sentido quando é analisado dentro do contexto limitado de escolhas geradas pelo próprio modelo. A interpretação dos resultados permitiu concluir que as mulheres da 2ª Delegacia de Polícia de Defesa de Mulheres e as do Centro de Saúde Rubens Monteiro Arruda, diferem em relação a maioria das crenças. As do primeiro grupo tendem a ter crenças de baixa autovalorização e de supervalorização do parceiro e, por isso, tendem a ser ,agredidas. / Study of believes integrating life script of women that suffered agression from their husbands or companions. It is an \"ex-post facto\" research done with the population attended by the Second Police District of Women Defense and Health Center Doctor Rubens Monteiro Arruda, in the district of Santo Amaro, in the city of São Paulo (SP), Brazil. In the form that it is presented, this research can be considered unheard in the area of Transactional Analysis. With it one tried to get to know the believes resulting from life experiences with which every respondent woman built their life model. It is recognized that every behaviour, the more incongruent it is, owns a sense, when analysed inside the limited context of choices generated by the own model. The interpretation of results permitted to conclude that, those women from the Second Police District and those from the Health Center Rubens Monteiro Arruda, differ in relation to the majority of the believes. The ones from the first group tend to have, believes of low self-value and super valorization of the companion and, for this reason, they tend to be victims of agression.

This thesis explores the effectiveness of a community-led response to domestic violence in tribal communities within Udaipur district, Rajasthan, India. Situated within an Indian Non Government Organization's comprehensive women's empowerment program, this research shows that the Women's Resource Centers provide mediation to stop domestic violence and potentially prevent future violence through challenging cultural norms that perpetuate violence. Using a program evaluation approach, I compare how the program is intended to operate to my observations and interviews with community implementers, primarily at one Women's Resource Center. This comparative lens serves to demonstrate the inevitable shifts and challenges that occur throughout implementation. I argue that development interventions addressing violence against women continually experiment with monitoring and evaluation tools, such as an outcome map, to capture their successes and setbacks to foster organizational learning and increase accountability to the intended beneficiaries of the program.

Este estudo buscou compreender a experiência das mulheres em situação de violência doméstica e familiar. A partir da clarificação desta questão central, buscou-se contribuir para a divulgação de meios jurídicos e jurisdicionais, melhorar a assistência integral à mulher vítima de violência doméstica na região leste do Município de São Paulo e viabilizar novas políticas públicas no tema violência contra a mulher. A opção foi pela pesquisa qualitativa, método etnográfico e conceitos da antropologia interpretativa. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida com oito mulheres, que vivenciaram situações de violência doméstica e/ou familiar e que tenham procurado auxílio no Centro de Cidadania da Mulher de Itaquera, localizado em São Paulo/SP. Adotou-se para a coleta de dados a observação participante e a entrevista semi-estruturada composta por questões norteadoras. Os dados foram apresentados na forma de narrativas. Os resultados se resumiram em seis categorias, agrupadas posteriormente em três grandes temas. A discussão teve seu eixo na violência simbólica descrita por Bourdieu. A violência simbólica fundamentada nas crenças sociais, caracterizada pela invisibilidade, por não enxergar, pela submissão encantada, vinculada a aceitação de um papel subalterno e passivo frente à uma força de dominação. O resultado deste estudo foi a expressão viva do sofrimento à recuperação, da baixa autoestima à reconstrução do eu, histórias de mulheres e sua experiência na violência vivida. / The present study seeks to analyze the experience of violence for the women on the domestic and familiar situation. Throughout the clarification of this central point, the present aims to contribute for the disclosure of the legal and jurisdictional procedures, to improve the assistance to the woman victim of domestic violence at the east region of Sao Paulo city and to create public politics regarding this field. The option was to accomplish the qualitative way of search, ethnography method and the concepts of interpretive anthropology. The was developed with eight woman who passed through situations of domestic and/or familiar violence and had gone to the assistance of the Centro de Cidadania da Mulher de Itaquera, located in São Paulo/SP. For this purpose, the method of participant observation has been applied to the data collection and guiding questions for the semi-structured interview. The data had been introduced as a form of narrative. The results of the present study resulted in six categories, subsequently grouped in three major themes. The discussion had its guide in the symbolic violence described by Bourdieu. The symbolic violence whose background was obtained from the social beliefs, characterized by invisibility, not by sight, by submission enchanted bound to accept a subordinate role and passive front of a force of domination. The result of this study is the live expression of live suffering to the recovery, of low self-esteem to the reconstruction of the self, histories of women and their experience in the violence experienced.

archives@tulane.edu / Violence against women (VAW) knows no demographic boundaries, is one of the most oppressive forms of gender inequality, and is recognized by some as an impediment to the social and economic development of under-resourced communities. Tanzanian leaders’ goal of achieving middle-income status by 2025 is reviewed against the institutional policies and practices designed to address the violence women of Dar es Salaam experience and ask if VAW is a serious threat to Tanzania’s achievement of middle-income status? This question was answered by conducting a situational analysis of the international, regional, national, and local actors and their engagement with customary and statutory laws, human rights instruments, judicial activities, donor relationships, and NGO-driven activism. Large scale events like the annual “16 Days of Activism against Violence Against Women” (16 Days) and TGNP’s bi¬annual Gender Festival provided opportunities to collect data from local activities and policy discussions for addressing VAW in Dar es Salaam. Subsequent interviews and conversations with respondents, reviews of government and I/NGO reports, data from the 2015 presidential election, and legal decisions from the High Court further augmented the initial data collection. This research highlighted these key findings: (1) there is a dearth of research on the applicability of intersectionality methods and theory to institutions and organizations generally and in Tanzania specifically; (2) customary laws and traditions impact international and national laws beyond rural concerns and impedes progressive law reform as it is still filtered through culture and customs; (3) VAW remains firmly entrenched in familiar, community, and political systems that were built on patriarchal (and postcolonial) foundations; and (4) efforts to achieve middle-income status continue apart from the need to address VAW and other adverse consequences of a society still influenced by customary laws and traditions derived from patriarchal systems. / 1 / M Denise Miles-Francois