Many studies have suggested a relationship between sex steroids and negative mental and mood changes in women. Allopregnanolone, a potent endogenous ligand of the GABA-A receptor and a metabolite of progesterone, is one of the most accused neuroactive steroids. Variations in the levels of neuroactive steroids that influence the activity of the GABA-A receptor cause a vulnerability to mental and emotional pathology. In women, there are physiological conditions in which allopregnanolone production increases acutely (e.g. stress) or chronically (e.g. menstrual cycle, pregnancy), thus exposing the GABA-A receptor to high allopregnanolone concentrations. In such conditions, tolerance to allopregnanolone probably develops. We have evaluated the 3β-hydroxy pregnane steroid UC1011 as a functional antagonist to allopregnanolone-induced negative effects in rats. In vivo, we used the Morris Water Maze (MWM) test of learning and, in vitro, we studied chloride ion uptake into cortical and hippocampal membrane preparations. The steroid UC1011 reduces the allopregnanolone-induced learning impairment in the MWM and the increase in chloride ion uptake induced by allopregnanolone. To detect whether chronic tolerance develops to an allopregnanolone-induced condition, male rats were pretreated with allopregnanolone injections for three or seven days. These rats were then tested in the Morris Water Maze for five days and compared with relevant controls. Rats with seven days’ allopregnanolone pretreatment experienced improved performance compared with the acutely allopregnanolone-exposed group, reflecting chronic tolerance development. To study the GABA-A receptor changes in acute allopregnanolone tolerance, we used the silent second (SS) anaesthesia threshold method. At acute tolerance, 90 minutes of anaesthesia, the abundance of the GABA-A receptor α4 subunit and the expression of the α4 subunit mRNA in the thalamus ventral-posteriomedial (VPM) nucleus were reduced. There was also a significant negative correlation between the increase in the allopregnanolone dose needed to maintain anaesthesia and the α4 mRNA in the VPM nucleus. We also investigated whether allopregnanolone tolerance was still present one or two days after the end of the anaesthesia-induced acute tolerance. Tolerance persisted to one day, but not two days, after the treatment and the α4 subunit mRNA expression in the VPM nucleus was negatively related to the allopregnanolone doses needed after one day. In conclusion, the current thesis shows that the substance UC1011 can reduce the allopregnanolone-induced negative effects in the water maze test. Chronic allopregnanolone tolerance can develop to the effects of allopregnanolone. Allopregnanolone tolerance persists one day after the induction of acute allopregnanolone tolerance. The GABA-A receptor α4 subunit in the thalamus might be involved in the development and persistence of acute tolerance to allopregnanolone.

No description available.

Dysfunction of the central noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems is the primary neurobiological characteristic of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Importantly, neuronal loss in the locus coeruleus (LC) that occurs in early stages of PD may accelerate progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons. Therefore, restoring the activity and function of the deficient noradrenergic system may be an important therapeutic strategy for early PD. In the present study, the lentiviral constructions of transcription factors Phox2a/2b, Hand2 and Gata3, either alone or in combination, were microinjected into the LC region of the PD model VMAT2 Lo mice at 12 and 18 month age. Biochemical analysis showed that microinjection of lentiviral expression cassettes into the LC significantly increased mRNA levels of Phox2a, and Phox2b, which were accompanied by parallel increases of mRNA and proteins of dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the LC. Furthermore, there was considerable enhancement of DBH protein levels in the frontal cortex and hippocampus, as well as enhanced TH protein levels in the striatum and substantia nigra. Moreover, these manipulations profoundly increased norepinephrine and dopamine concentrations in the striatum, which was followed by a remarkable improvement of the spatial memory and locomotor behavior. These results reveal that over-expression of these transcription factors in the LC improves noradrenergic and dopaminergic activities and functions in this rodent model of PD. It provides the necessary groundwork for the development of gene therapies of PD, and expands our understanding of the link between the LC-norepinephrine and dopamine systems during the progression of PD.

A computerized virtual version of the Morris water maze (vMWM) was used to assess human gender differences in spatial working memory. In Experiment 1, the release point and platform location was changed on every other trial for 20 trials. Men had significantly reduced acquisition latencies and more accurate heading errors on the first daily trial compared to women. In Experiment 2, the release point and platform location was changed every fourth trial for 20 trials. Men had significantly shorter acquisition latencies and path lengths than women. Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 2, except that environmental cues were changed throughout testing. Men had significantly shorter acquisition latencies and path lengths than did the women. These studies are the first to demonstrate significant gender differences in a spatial working memory version of the vMWM.

Growth hormone (GH) stimulates growth and metabolism but also displays profound effects on the central nervous system (CNS). GH affects neurogenesis and neuroprotection, and has been shown to counteract drug-induced apoptosis in the brain. Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), mainly abused for their anabolic and performance-enhancing properties, can cause several adverse effects, such as cardiovascular complications, sterility, depression, and aggression. GH and AAS are both believed to interact with several signaling systems in the CNS. The aim of this thesis was to further investigate the impact of GH and AAS on neurochemistry and cognitive functions. Recombinant human GH (rhGH) and the steroid nandrolone decanoate (ND) were administered, separately and in combination with each other, to male rats. The results demonstrated that administration of GH improved spatial memory, assessed in a water maze test. Furthermore, GH induced alterations of the GABAB receptor mRNA expression, density, and functionality in the brain, for example in regions associated with cognition. GH also altered the mu opioid peptide (MOP) receptor, but not the delta opioid peptide (DOP) receptor functionality in the brain. Thus, some of the GH effects on cognition may involve effects on the GABAB receptors and MOP receptors. ND, on the contrary, seemed to induce impairments of memory and also altered the GABAB receptor mRNA expression in the brain. Furthermore, ND lowered the IGF-1 plasma concentrations and attenuated the IGF-1, IGF-2, and GHR mRNA expression in the pituitary. In addition, significant effects of GH and ND were found on plasma steroid concentrations, organ weight, as well as body weight. In conclusion, this thesis contributes with further knowledge on the cognitive and neurochemical consequences of GH and ND use. The findings regarding ND are worrying considering the common use of AAS among adolescents. GH improves memory functions and affects signaling systems in the brain associated with cognition, hence the hypothesis that GH can reverse drug-induced impairments is further strengthened.

Cognitive impairments are an increasing health problem worldwide. In the developed countries, the average life expectancy has dramatically increased over the last decades, and with an elderly population more cases of cognitive impairments appear. Age, genetics, and different medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, and substance use disorders may all contribute to declined cognitive ability. Physiological functions also decrease with increasing age, as does the activity of the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis. Interestingly, both GH and IGF-1 are recognized for their neuroprotective effects and cognitive enhancement. The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the impact of the somatotrophic axis (i.e. GH/IGF-1 axis) in rodents with cognitive deficiencies induced by diabetes or long-term drug exposure. For the first time cognitive impairments were characterized in diabetic mice using a spatial learning and memory task called the Barnes maze (BM). In diabetic mice, impaired learning in the BM was associated with decreased expression of the GH receptor (GHR) in the frontal cortex, a region important for e.g. working memory. Treatment with GH reversed certain cognitive impairments seen in diabetic animals. In rats treated with gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a significant decrease of Igf1 mRNA expression in the frontal cortex was observed. This observation may explain the impaired cognitive function previously seen following GHB administration. Furthermore, rats exposed to chronic morphine delivered in mini-osmotic pumps displayed memory impairments in the Morris water maze (MWM), an effect that seems to be associated with the composition of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor complex in the frontal cortex. In conclusion, the result strengthens the evidence for GH being a cognitive enhancer. Moreover, the result within this thesis identifies the frontal cortex as an important brain region, where gene expression related to the somatotrophic system is affected in rodents with cognitive impairments. The thesis especially emphasizes the importance of the local somatotrophic system in the brain with regard to cognitive function.

A anóxia neonatal decorre da redução de oxigênio no feto ou no recém-nascido e provoca morte e morbidade principalmente nos prematuros. Neste projeto avaliamos se o exercício físico espontâneo em ratas gestantes atenua os problemas no desenvolvimento e na cognição provocados pela anóxia neonatal nos filhotes. Para tanto, avaliamos o desenvolvimento somático e sensorimotor dos filhotes até o desmame e na idade adulta avaliamos a sua memória espacial. Também analisamos a densidade de neurônios e a expressão relativa de sinapsina I no hipocampo de animais jovens e adultos. O exercício materno espontâneo foi capaz de reverter o atraso provocado pela anóxia neonatal no aparecimento de características físicas e reflexos. Em animais jovens, ele também diminuiu a redução, pela anóxia, da densidade neuronal no giro dentado e da expressão relativa de sinapsina I. Os efeitos do exercício materno e da anóxia neonatal aparentemente não persistiram até a vida adulta. Assim, o exercício materno espontâneo atenua os efeitos da anóxia neonatal em jovens. / Neonatal anoxia follows from oxygen reduction in fetus or newborn and causes death and morbidity mainly in premature children. We evaluated if spontaneous maternal exercise in pregnant rats attenuates problems in the development and in the cognition caused by neonatal anoxia in pups. Thereunto, we evaluated the somatic and sensory-motor development of pups until weaning and, at adult age, we evaluated their spatial memory. We also analysed the neuron density and the relative expression of synapsin I in the hippocampus of young and adult animals. The spontaneous maternal exercise was able to reverse the delay caused by neonatal anoxia in the development of physical traits and reflexes. In young animals, maternal exercise also decrease the reduction, by anoxia, of neuronal density in the dentate gyrus and of relative expression. of synapsin I. Maternal exercise and neonatal anoxia effects apparently did not persist until adulthood. Thus, spontaneous maternal exercise attenuates neonatal anoxia effects in Young rats.

Drug dependence is a serious and increasing problem in our society, especially among adolescents. The use of the large variety of substances available can result in a range of physiological and psychological adverse effects on individuals and negative consequences on the society overall. Several different types of drugs induce neurotoxicological damages, which in turn can generate impairment in for example the reward system and affect cognitive parameters.  The drug gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is usually considered a harmless compound among abusers, but has now shown to be highly addictive. Furthermore, GHB can cause memory impairments in both humans and animals. On the contrary, growth hormone (GH) and its main mediator insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) have recently been suggested to improve memory and learning in several studies. The hormones exhibit certain neuroprotective capabilities and have also previously been demonstrated to reverse opioid induced apoptosis in hippocampal cells. These effects and the fact that GHB is shown to increase GH secretion, which attracted considerable attention among body builders, led us to initiate studies on GHB and its impact on relevant systems in the central nervous system (CNS). Thus, the main purpose of the present investigation was to elucidate some of the underlying mechanisms that could account for the effects exerted by GH and GHB in the CNS. We found that a) GH affects the density and functionality of GABAB-receptors and opioid receptors in the male rat brain, b) GHB induces cognitive deficits and down-regulates GABAB-receptors, c) GHB treatment creates an imbalance between the endogenous opioids Met-enkaphalin-Arg6Phe7 (MEAP) and dynorphin B and increases the levels of MEAP in regions of the brain that are associated with drug dependence, and d) GHB affects the expression of IGF-1 receptors but not the plasma levels of IGF-1. In conclusion, the present work demonstrates that GH interacts with both opioid and GABAB-receptors in the male rat CNS and that GHB has an impact on brain regions associated with cognition and the development of dependence. These observations may be of relevance in many aspects related to addiction and might be translated into humans.

For many years, it has been known that Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a negative risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It has been commonly assumed that RA patients’ usage of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have helped prevent the onset and progression of AD pathogenesis. Furthermore, experiments in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease have looked to inhibit inflammation, and have demonstrated some efficacy against AD-like pathology in these models. Thus many NSAID clinical trials have been performed over the years, but all have proven unsuccessful in AD patients. This suggests that intrinsic factors within RA pathogenesis itself may underlie RA’s protective effect. My dissertation research goal was to investigate this inverse relationship between RA and AD, in order to more precisely pinpoint critical events in AD pathogenesis toward developing therapeutic strategies against AD. It seemed improbable that any secreted factors, produced in RA pathogenesis, could maintain high enough concentrations in the circulatory system to cross the blood brain barrier and inhibit AD pathogenesis, without affecting all other organ systems. It did seem possible that the leukocyte populations induced in RA, could traverse the circulatory system, extravasate into the brain parenchyma, and impede or reverse AD pathogenesis. We thus investigated the colony-stimulating factors, which are up-regulated in RA and which induce most of RA’s leukocytosis, on the pathology and behavior of transgenic AD mice. We found that G-CSF and more significantly, GM-CSF, reduced amyloidosis throughout the treated brain hemisphere one week following bolus intrahippocampal administration into AD mice. We then found that 20 days of subcutaneous injections of GM-CSF (the most amyloid-reducing CSF in the bolus experiment) significantly reduced brain amyloidosis and completely reversed cognitive impairment in aged cognitively-impaired AD mice, while increasing hippocampal synaptic area and microglial density. These findings, along with two decades of accrued safety data using Leukine, the recombinant human GM-CSF analogue, in elderly leukopenic patients, suggested that Leukine should be tested as a treatment to reverse cerebral amyloid pathology and cognitive impairment in AD patients. It was also implied that age-related depressed hematopoiesis may contribute to AD pathogenesis.

Only 200 years ago, virtually nothing was known about the biological workings of the mind. Today, there is a deep (though far from complete) understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the encoding of memory, arguably the most fundamental aspect of a cognitive being. In this thesis, I describe experiments that help complete this understanding and identify the very first molecules underlying curiosity. By using an inducible rtTA2-M2 double transgenic system to selectively overexpress the calcium sensor Ncs1 in the adult murine dentate gyrus, I created an animal with facilitated long-term potentiation, enhanced rapid acquisition of spatial memory and greater curiosity. These phenotypes are reversed by direct infusion of a small membrane-permeant interfering peptide designed to block complex formation between NCS-1 and Dopamine type-2 receptors (D2 receptors). Pharmacological antagonism of D2 receptors also attenuates plasticity in wild-type mice and direct antagonism of D2 receptors in the dentate of cannulized wild-type mice prevents spatial memory formation. Conversely, application of a dominant negative NCS-1 peptide reduces synaptic transmission in the dentate gyrus and impairs spatial fear learning. Far less understood than the mechanisms governing learning and memory, are the mechanisms used by the brain to generate curiosity. Strikingly, Ncs1 overexpressing mice also demonstrate increased exploratory behaviours in a variety of novel, non-fearful environments. But they do not explore novel fearful environments any more than their littermate controls. I argue that the specificity of this phenotype represents an effect on curiosity, thereby identifying NCS-1 and D2 receptors as the first known regulators of this primordial mental state. I propose that the generation of curiosity is a fundamental feature of the nervous system and is upstream of learning and cognition. As such, molecular cascades involved in curiosity likely also play roles in mental illnesses. To investigate this theory, I generated an NCS-1 point mutant mouse line. NCS-1P144S/P144S mice show endophenotypes of schizophrenia and depression, supporting the link between curiosity and mental illness. I integrate my findings with the current literature and propose a means to investigate the role of NCS-1 in humans with mental illnesses.