Detta examensarbete har genomförts på begäran av byggnadstekniska byrån i Uppsala. Företaget behöver en ny beräkningsmall med vindlastberäkning för väggar och olika taktyper enligt Eurokod. I dagsläget använder företaget en beräkningsmall som är baserad på gamla normer enligt BKR. Dessa normer kan dock inte användas längre enligt nya bestämmelser inom branschen. Enligt de nya bestämmelserna bör dessa vindlastberäkningar genomföras med hänsyn till Eurokod i framtiden. För att kunna beräkna vindlasten enligt Eurokod och effektivisera beräkningsgången har man utvecklat en beräkningsmall baserad på Eurokod. Alla nödvändiga parameterar enligt standarder har använts i beräkningsmallen och användaren tillåts genomföra en snabb och enkel inmatning av projektmått för att på ett automatiserat sätt genomföra belastningsanalysen. Detta program har skrivits och utvecklats i beräkningsprogrammet, Excel. / This bachelor thesis has been carried out at the request of an engineering company located in Uppsala. The company is aiming for a new computation template developed for wind load computations for walls and different ceiling types according to Euro-codes. In the current situation, the company uses a computation template that is based on old standards namely, BKR. These standards are not allowed to be used anymore due to new regulations within this market. Within the computational framework of the new regulations, these wind load computations have to be performed based on the methods presented in the Euro-codes in future. In order to compute the wind load according to Euro-code, an automated program has been developed for computational purpose according to the methods based on Euro-code. All the necessary parameters according to the standards have been inserted as input data in the program. The program has been developed with the purpose to be very user friendly for faster load analysis. The user is allowed to input project metrics to perform a quick load analysis in an automated manner. This program has been written and developed in the computational software, Excel.

A pressurized arch-shell structural component made of flexible material is considered. The component is inflated with high internal pressure. The behavior of similar types of structures, such as a pair of leaning pressurized arches and pressurized arch-supported membrane shelters, has been investigated in the past. More recently, several types of pressurized structures have been incorporated as part of the framework for a variety of structural systems. Particularly, the U.S. Army has been investigating the use of large lightweight and transportable pressurized arch-shell structures to be used as maintenance shelters for vehicles, helicopters, and airplanes. The formulated equations using thin shell theory are applied to a pressurized arch-shell component. A numerical investigation based on the Rayleigh-Ritz method is utilized to determine the behavior of arch-shells under various types of loading. The types of loading include a uniformly distributed vertical load representing snow, a wind load, and a horizontal side load distributed along the arc length. Deflections, stress resultants, and moments at various locations are computed for two types of shapes: circular and non-circular arch-shells. / Master of Science

A structure comprised of two arches that lean against each other at the apex is considered. The arches are thin shells with internal pressure. This type of structure with solid arches has been used in bridges, such as the Gateway Arch Bridge in Columbus, Indiana, U.S.A., the Monongahela River Bridge in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and a pedestrian bridge at the Pacific Tower in Paris, France. A series of leaning arches was incorporated in the frame of the Museum of the Moving Image, a temporary structure in London, England, during 1992-1994. Pressurized arch-shells made of a flexible material have been utilized as part of the framework for some transportable tent-like structures. The behavior of a pair of pressurized leaning arch-shells with various tilt angles, boundary conditions, and loads is investigated numerically. Several types of loads are considered, including uniformly-distributed vertical loads applied over all or half of the structure (representing snow), and wind loads on the structure. The arches are pinned or fixed to the ground. Deflections, vibrations, and stability of the structures are investigated using the finite element method. The effect of the tilt angle on the response is examined, and buckling may occur for some tilt angles under vertical loading. This type of structure has not been used widely, but may be effective for various applications. / Master of Science

Because of increased domestic construction of taller buildings in Sweden during the lastdecade and more to be planned it is crucial to increase the knowledge in this field and analyzethe problems to find suitable solutions.Due to the nature of taller buildings it is important to focus on key areas that can affect theconstruction in its whole. Such as the logistics during the whole process from start to finishand more important the configurations of the building. This can include fire safety and theload from the wind.Through academic literatures and by interviewing people with key positions during theconstruction of tall buildings in Sweden we have gathered a foundation of information onhow to tackle the problems that occurring when constructing tall buildings.The aim of this degree project is to highlight the problems of the construction of tall buildingsand find suitable solutions of how to effectively minimize or solve the problems.

O tema está relacionado com o constante crescimento da necessidade em implantarnovas torres de telecomunicações devido ao crescimento acelerado da infraestrutura de telecomunicações no Brasil. Todos os dias, novos sistemas de transmissão e recepção de ondas eletromagnéticas estão sendo implantados no território brasileiro. O objetivo deste trabalho é propor um procedimento seguro e eficaz para a análise estrutural de torres de telecomunicações em concreto armado de grande esbeltez, com base em um modelo dinâmico não linear, submetendo à carga de vento. Estas cargas são simuladas pelo método do vento sintético proposto por Franco (1993). A análise do concreto armado será realizada de acordo com a NBR-6118 (ABNT, 2007). A fim de determinar com precisão os deslocamentos da estrutura submetida ao carregamento de vento, um método iterativo computacional será utilizado obter as respostas não lineares. Realiza-se uma análise linear e, a partir dos resultados de esforços solicitantes, as tensões e a porção fissurada de cada seção transversal é obtida e parte-se para a determinação dos deslocamentos de 2ª ordem da torre. Em cada iteração, um procedimento do tipo P-Delta será utilizado para levar em conta a não linearidade geométrica da estrutura. As condições de contorno do problema estão relacionadas com a restrição do nível de tensões, deslocamentos e frequências de vibração da estrutura. Ao fim, uma análise dinâmica em torno da configuração não linear será realizada, e o deslocamento total da torre será dado pela somatória da componente estática com a componente flutuante do vento. / The theme is related to the constant growth in the need to deploy new telecommunications towers due to the accelerated growth of telecommunications infrastructure in Brazil. Every day, new systems of transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves are being implanted in the Brazilian territory. The objective of this work is to propose a safe and efficient procedure for the structural analysis of telecommunication towers with high slenderness constructed in reinforced concrete, based on a dynamic nonlinear model, submitting it to the wind load. These loads are simulated by the synthetic wind method proposed by Franco (1993). The analysis of the reinforced concrete will be held according to NBR-6118 (ABNT, 2007). In order to determine accurately the displacements of the structure subjected to wind loading, an iterative computational method will be held to obtain non-linear responses. A linear analysis is carried out and, with the results of the forces, the tensions and the fissured portion of each cross section are obtained and then 2nd order displacements of the tower. In each iteration, a P-Delta type procedure will be held to take into account the geometric non-linearity of the structure. The boundary conditions of the problem are related to the restriction of the stress level, displacements and vibration frequencies of the structure. At the end, a dynamic analysis around the nonlinear configuration will be performed, and the total displacement of the tower will be given by the sum of the static component with the floating component of the wind.

Studien omfattar anslutningen mellan vägg och gavelspets i ett prefabriceratenplanshus i trä. Huset är uppbyggt av saxtakstolar och få innerväggar för attdärigenom erhålla en öppen planlösning. Det medför att stabiliserandebyggnadsdelar saknas och horisontella vindlaster ger då upphov till oacceptabeltstora utböjningsdeformationer på anslutningen. Syftet är att undersöka kapaciteten med avseende på moment, vindlast ochspännvidd i de befintliga lösningarna samt presentera en alternativ lösning somskulle kunna vara praktiskt tillämpbar. Utefter detta uppnås målet som är att lyftafram de parametrar som påverkar utböjningen. Befintliga lösningar med förstärkning av balkar i materialet Kerto-S som ökarböjstyvheten undersöktes och analyserades. Två alternativa lösningar som klararutböjningskravet för en längre spännvidd dimensionerades. Den första alternativa lösningen innefattar förutom två horisontella Kertobalkaräven en invändigt stående Kertopelarbalk som delvis kompenserar för avsaknadenav stabiliserande innerväggar. I den andra alternativa lösningen placeras fyra mindreKertopelarbalkar i väggkonstruktionen vilket gör att den horisontella vindlastenomfördelas. Gemensamt för de båda lösningarna är att anslutningsbalken fördelarvindlasten till en eller flera pelarbalkar som verkar avstyvande för konstruktionen. / This study embrace the connection between wall and gable tip in a prefabricatedsingle storey house in a wooden construction. The house is built by scissor trussesand few interior walls to achieve open floor plans. This causes that stabilizingbuilding components are missing and the effect of horizontal wind loads is causingunacceptable large deflection deformation in the connection. An existing solutionusing a Kerto beam which increase the bending stiffness was investigated andanalyzed. The purpose of this work is to examine the capacity in the existing solutions and topresent an alternative solution that could be practical applicable. With thatknowledge accomplish the goal that is to emphasize the parameters that affects thedeflection. Two alternative solutions that meets the deflection requirements for a longer spanwere designed. The first alternative solution contains, except for two Kerto beams,also an interior standing beam which partly make up for the lack of stabilizinginterior walls. In the second alternative solution, four smaller columns are locatedinside the wall construction to redistribute the load. Common for the both solutionsis that the connection beam obtains a smaller span by adding columns which insome extent constitute a stabilizing component.

The objectives of this study are (1) to develop an accurate and efficient fatigue analysis procedure that can be used in reliability analysis and reliability-based design optimization (RBDO) of composite wind turbine blades; (2) to develop a wind load uncertainty model that provides realistic uncertain wind load for the reliability analysis and the RBDO process; and (3) to obtain an optimal composite wind turbine blade that satisfies target reliability for durability under the uncertain wind load. The current research effort involves: (1) developing an aerodynamic analysis method that can effectively calculate detailed wind pressure on the blade surface for stress analysis; (2) developing a fatigue failure criterion that can cope with non-proportional multi-axial stress states in composite wind turbine blades; (3) developing a wind load uncertainty model that represents realistic uncertain wind load for fatigue reliability of wind turbine systems; (4) applying the wind load uncertainty model into a composite wind turbine blade and obtaining an RBDO optimum design that satisfies a target probability of failure for a lifespan of 20 years under wind load uncertainty. In blade fatigue analysis, resultant aerodynamic forces are usually applied at the aerodynamic centers of the airfoils of a blade to calculate stress/strain. However, in reality the wind pressures are applied on the blade surface. A wind turbine blade is often treated as a typical beam-like structure for which fatigue life calculations are limited in the edge-wise and/or flap-wise direction(s). Using the beam-like structure, existing fatigue analysis methods for composite wind turbine blades cannot cope with the non-proportional multi-axial stress states that are endured by wind turbine blades during operation. Therefore, it is desirable to develop a fatigue analysis procedure that utilizes detailed wind pressures as wind loads and considers non-proportional multi-axial stress states in fatigue damage calculation. In this study, a 10-minute wind field realization, determined by a 10-minute mean wind speed V10 and a 10-minute turbulence intensity I10, is first simulated using Veers’ method. The simulated wind field is used for aerodynamic analysis. An aerodynamic analysis method, which could efficiently generate detailed quasi-physical blade surface pressures, has been developed. The generated pressures are then applied on a high-fidelity 3-D finite element blade model for stress and fatigue analysis. The fatigue damage calculation considers the non-proportional multi-axial complex stress states. A detailed fatigue damage contour, which indicates the fatigue failure locally, can be obtained using the developed fatigue analysis procedure. As the 10-minute fatigue analysis procedure is deterministic in this study, the calculated 10-minute fatigue damage is determined by V10 and I10. It is necessary to clarify that the rotational speed of the wind turbine blade is assumed to be constant (12.1 rpm) and the pitch angle is fixed to be 0 degree for different wind conditions, since the rotational speed control and pitch angle control have not been considered in this study. For predicting the fatigue life of a wind turbine, a fixed Weibull distribution is widely used to determine the percentage of time the wind turbine experiences different mean wind speeds during its life-cycle. Meanwhile, fixed turbulence intensities are often used based on the designed wind turbine types. These simplifications, i.e., fixed Weibull distribution and fixed turbulence intensities, ignore the realistic uncertain wind load when designing a reliable wind turbine system. In the real world, both the mean wind speed and turbulence intensity vary constantly over one year, and their annual distributions are different at different locations and in different years. Thus, it is necessary to develop a wind load uncertainty model that can provide a realistic uncertain wind load for designing reliable wind turbine systems. In this study, 249 groups of measured wind data, collected at different locations and in different years, are used to develop a dynamic wind load uncertainty model. The dynamic wind load uncertainty model consists of annual wind load variation and wind load variation in a large spatiotemporal range, i.e., at different locations and in different years. The annual wind load variation is represented by the joint probability density function of V10 and I10. The wind load variation in a large spatiotemporal range is represented by the probability density functions of five parameters, C, k, a, b, and τ, which determine the joint probability density function of V10 and I10. In order to obtain the RBDO optimum design efficiently, a deterministic design optimization (DDO) procedure of a composite wind turbine blade has been first carried out using averaged percentage of time (probability) for each wind condition. A wind condition is specified by two terms: 10-minute mean wind speed and 10-minute turbulence intensity. In this research, a probability table, which consists of averaged probabilities corresponding to different wind conditions, is referred as a mean wind load. The mean wind load is generated using the dynamic wind load uncertainty model. During the DDO process, the laminate thickness design variables are tailored to minimize the total cost of composite materials while satisfying the target fatigue lifespan of 20 years. It is found that, under the mean wind load condition, the fatigue life of the initial design is only 0.0004 year. After the DDO process, even though the cost at the DDO optimum design is increased by 31.5% compared to that at the initial design, the predicted fatigue life at the DDO optimum design is significantly increased to 19.9995 years. Reliability analyses of the initial design and the DDO optimum design have been carried out using the wind load uncertainty model and Monte Carlo simulation. The reliability analysis results show that the DDO procedure reduces the probability of failure from 100% at the initial design to 49.9% at the DDO optimum design considering only wind load uncertainty. In order to satisfy the target 2.275% probability of failure, it is necessary to further improve the fatigue reliability of the composite wind turbine blade by RBDO. Reliability-based design optimization of the composite wind turbine blade has been carried out starting at the DDO optimum design. Fatigue hotspots for RBDO are identified among the laminate section points, which are selected from the DDO optimum design. Local surrogate models for 10-minute fatigue damage have been created at the selected hotspots. Using the local surrogate models, both the wind load uncertainty and manufacturing variability has been included in the RBDO process. It is found that the probability of failure is 50.06% at the RBDO initial design (DDO optimum design) considering both wind load uncertainty and manufacturing variability. During the RBDO process, the normalized laminate thickness design variables are tailored to minimize the total cost of composite materials while satisfying the target 2.275% probability of failure. The obtained RBDO optimum design reduces the probability of failure from 50.06% at the DDO optimum design to 2.28%, while increasing the cost by 3.01%.

The purpose of this work is to contribute to a process formaking buildings with good function and to avoid prematurefaults. The design, construction and installation of low-slopedroofs are important parts of creating a durable building. Mostof the leakages in low-sloped roofs occur where materials withdifferent thermomechanical properties are joined together. Withbetter knowledge about these joints, the expected service lifecould better be estimated. Common roofing materials onlow-sloped roofs are roof membranes. To avoid damages and to minimise energy consumption thedetection of air and water leaks is essential. It can bedifficult to localise a leak in e.g. a roof since water canflow far within the construction. Leakage detection can beapplied both as a quality assurance method after installationof low-sloped roofs and as field inspection methods. Theleakage detection can also be extended to terrace slabs and thewhole building envelope. To investigate the strength of jointsbetween sheet metaland roofing membranes, several small-scale tests and somelarge-scale tests were performed. The test methods weredeveloped to match the loads that can be expected on this kindof joints. A number of water leak-detection methods were evaluatedthrough application on test roofs. Some of the methods todetect leaks on low-sloped roofs can also be used to detect airleakage in other parts of the building envelope. To develop andevaluate air leak-detection procedures, selected methods wereused in two case studies. The circumstances regarding welding of the material jointswere found to have great impact on the strength. The roofshould be designed so no long-term strain will appear since acomparatively low stress may damage the joint over time. The performance of the leak-detection methods depends on theroofing material. All methods tested were an improvementcompared to visual inspections. Different recommendedapproaches for leakage detection and quality control is given.The case studies show that air leakage detection could beperformed with good accuracy. The potential difference methodcould without doubt be a tool for leakage localisation inwaterproofing layers both on roofs and in terrace slabs. <b>Keywords:</b>Roofing, roof membrane, durability,waterproofing, leakage, wind-load, non-destructive testing,NDT, BSL4, BSL3, air leakage, building envelope

<p>The purpose of this work is to contribute to a process formaking buildings with good function and to avoid prematurefaults.</p><p>The design, construction and installation of low-slopedroofs are important parts of creating a durable building. Mostof the leakages in low-sloped roofs occur where materials withdifferent thermomechanical properties are joined together. Withbetter knowledge about these joints, the expected service lifecould better be estimated. Common roofing materials onlow-sloped roofs are roof membranes.</p><p>To avoid damages and to minimise energy consumption thedetection of air and water leaks is essential. It can bedifficult to localise a leak in e.g. a roof since water canflow far within the construction. Leakage detection can beapplied both as a quality assurance method after installationof low-sloped roofs and as field inspection methods. Theleakage detection can also be extended to terrace slabs and thewhole building envelope.</p><p>To investigate the strength of jointsbetween sheet metaland roofing membranes, several small-scale tests and somelarge-scale tests were performed. The test methods weredeveloped to match the loads that can be expected on this kindof joints.</p><p>A number of water leak-detection methods were evaluatedthrough application on test roofs. Some of the methods todetect leaks on low-sloped roofs can also be used to detect airleakage in other parts of the building envelope. To develop andevaluate air leak-detection procedures, selected methods wereused in two case studies.</p><p>The circumstances regarding welding of the material jointswere found to have great impact on the strength. The roofshould be designed so no long-term strain will appear since acomparatively low stress may damage the joint over time.</p><p>The performance of the leak-detection methods depends on theroofing material. All methods tested were an improvementcompared to visual inspections. Different recommendedapproaches for leakage detection and quality control is given.The case studies show that air leakage detection could beperformed with good accuracy. The potential difference methodcould without doubt be a tool for leakage localisation inwaterproofing layers both on roofs and in terrace slabs.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>Roofing, roof membrane, durability,waterproofing, leakage, wind-load, non-destructive testing,NDT, BSL4, BSL3, air leakage, building envelope</p>

O tema está relacionado com o constante crescimento da necessidade em implantarnovas torres de telecomunicações devido ao crescimento acelerado da infraestrutura de telecomunicações no Brasil. Todos os dias, novos sistemas de transmissão e recepção de ondas eletromagnéticas estão sendo implantados no território brasileiro. O objetivo deste trabalho é propor um procedimento seguro e eficaz para a análise estrutural de torres de telecomunicações em concreto armado de grande esbeltez, com base em um modelo dinâmico não linear, submetendo à carga de vento. Estas cargas são simuladas pelo método do vento sintético proposto por Franco (1993). A análise do concreto armado será realizada de acordo com a NBR-6118 (ABNT, 2007). A fim de determinar com precisão os deslocamentos da estrutura submetida ao carregamento de vento, um método iterativo computacional será utilizado obter as respostas não lineares. Realiza-se uma análise linear e, a partir dos resultados de esforços solicitantes, as tensões e a porção fissurada de cada seção transversal é obtida e parte-se para a determinação dos deslocamentos de 2ª ordem da torre. Em cada iteração, um procedimento do tipo P-Delta será utilizado para levar em conta a não linearidade geométrica da estrutura. As condições de contorno do problema estão relacionadas com a restrição do nível de tensões, deslocamentos e frequências de vibração da estrutura. Ao fim, uma análise dinâmica em torno da configuração não linear será realizada, e o deslocamento total da torre será dado pela somatória da componente estática com a componente flutuante do vento. / The theme is related to the constant growth in the need to deploy new telecommunications towers due to the accelerated growth of telecommunications infrastructure in Brazil. Every day, new systems of transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves are being implanted in the Brazilian territory. The objective of this work is to propose a safe and efficient procedure for the structural analysis of telecommunication towers with high slenderness constructed in reinforced concrete, based on a dynamic nonlinear model, submitting it to the wind load. These loads are simulated by the synthetic wind method proposed by Franco (1993). The analysis of the reinforced concrete will be held according to NBR-6118 (ABNT, 2007). In order to determine accurately the displacements of the structure subjected to wind loading, an iterative computational method will be held to obtain non-linear responses. A linear analysis is carried out and, with the results of the forces, the tensions and the fissured portion of each cross section are obtained and then 2nd order displacements of the tower. In each iteration, a P-Delta type procedure will be held to take into account the geometric non-linearity of the structure. The boundary conditions of the problem are related to the restriction of the stress level, displacements and vibration frequencies of the structure. At the end, a dynamic analysis around the nonlinear configuration will be performed, and the total displacement of the tower will be given by the sum of the static component with the floating component of the wind.