Detta examensarbete utreder den tekniska och ekonomiska passbarheten av batterilagringssystem (BESS) inom den svenska el infrastrukturen. Syftet är att konstruera tre olika affärsfall för att representera den tekniska och den ekonomiska passbarheten av BESS inom den svenska el infrastrukturen, specifikt med uppkoppling mot distributionsnätverket på den regionala nivån, 6 kilovolt till 132 kilovolt (kV). Affärsfallen adresserar dem tekniska funktioner och kunder inom infrastrukturen som utifrån en litteraturstudie anses vara dem mest attraktiva att bygga ett affärsfall utifrån. Litteraturstudien utreder den svenska el infrastrukturens struktur samt dess existerande och uppkommande utmaningar. Studien utforskar även hela spektrumet energilagringssystem (ESS) för att rättfärdiga valet av litium-jon BESS. Litium-jon BESS är närmare undersökt, där systemets operativa parametrar samt komponenter är kartlagda. Vidare undersöks dem tekniska funktionernas tekniska krav och ekonomiska incitament i en marknadsanalys. Slutligen utforskas regler och lagar omkring BESS implementering i den svenska el infrastrukturen samt placeringen och de kostnader för att bygga en BESS anläggning. De tre affärfallen som är konstruerade i denna studie är: Kombinationen av frekvensrelaterade nätverksstödtjänster för en fristående BESS-tillgångsoperatör. Avbrottsfri strömtillförsel för ett datacenter. Skala effekttoppar och kombination av frekvensrelaterade nätverksstöddtjänster för en industri. Litium-jon BESS anses vara den mest tillämpliga tekniken på grund av dess snabba responstid, höga effekt- och energidensitet samt skalbarheten för att passa majoriteten av de tekniska funktioner som undersökts inom studien. Affärsfallens ekonomiska passbarhet utvärderas efter två ekonomiska indikatorer, nuvärdesberäkning (NPV) samt återbetalningstiden. Affärsfall nummer tvås tekniska funktion erbjuder ingen möjlighet att generera en inkomst vilket gör att den kommer bli utvärderad efter kostnad för service, där utgifterna är uppdelade utöver projektets livstid genom linjär amortering. Vidare används linjär amortering för att räkna ut kostnaden per kilo sparat CO2 utöver livstiden på projektet. Både affärsfall 1 (NPV= 231,0 MSEK, återbetalningstid= 7,8 år) samt affärsfall 3 (NPV= 17,3 MSEK, återbetalningstid= 8,8 år) visar en lönsamhet där affärsfall 2 ger en kostnad för service mellan 5,4 och 5,8 MSEK/år och där kostnaden per sparat kilo CO2 mellan 20,9 och 22,7 SEK/kg CO2. Denna studie fokuserar på de tre största distributionsnätverksoperatorerna (DNO) inom distributionsnätverket på en regional nivå: Vattenfall, Eon och Ellevio. Lönsamheten av de undersökta affärsfallen är starkt kopplade till placeringsområde inom nätverket, spänningsnivån och typ av DNO. Möjlighet att koppla upp BESS till en existerande transformatorstation på anläggningen för affärsfall två och tre minskar investeringskostnaden samt driftkostnaderna vilket vidare förbättrar dess lönsamhet. Affärsfall ett behöver gå igenom en noggrann bedömning för att försäkra sig om lönsamheten. NPV samt återbetalningstiden kan påverkas i affärsfall ett och tre på grund av den ständigt förändrande frekvensregleringsmarknaden där priserna är volatila på grund av nya marknadsinitiativ. Att konstruera ett BESS affärsfall medför att flertalet osäkerheter bör räknas in, såsom de ekonomiska incitamenten som inte visar någon garanti på att vara fortsatt lönsamt. Det höga priset på litium-jon batterier saktar ner attraktiviteten av affärsfallen och måste vidare sjunka för att främja ett lönsamt affärsfall. Andra ESS som flödesbatterier och vätgaslagringssystem visar god passbarhet att bli implementerad i den svenska el infrastrukturen men måste vidare utveckla sin tekniska och kommersiella mognadsgrad innan dem kan vara konkurrenskraftiga med litium-jon BESS.  Examensarbetet är utfört i samarbete med Omexom Infratek Sverige AB med målet att bidra till en större förståelse av BESS roll i den svenska el infrastrukturen och vidare bidra till att konstruera ett tekniskt erbjudande för Omexom Infratek Sverige AB. / This master thesis investigates the technical and economic feasibility of battery energy storage systems (BESS) in the Swedish electrical infrastructure. The aim is to construct three business cases to represent the technical and economic feasibility of BESS implementation in the Swedish electrical infrastructure in the distribution network on the regional level, 6 kilovolts to 132 kilovolts (kV). The business cases address the technical functions and customers within the infrastructure that is recognized through a literature study to build the most attractive and incentivized business cases from. The literature study investigates the Swedish electrical infrastructure’s structure and its existing and upcoming challenges. It investigates the spectrum of energy storage systems (ESS) to justify the choice of the lithium-ion (Li-ion) BESS. The Li-ion BESS is closer examined, where the systems operational parameters and components are mapped out. Furthermore, the technical functions technical requirements and economic incentives are investigated in a market analysis. Lastly, considerations regarding regulations and permits, the placement of BESS within the infrastructure and its surrounding costs is evaluated. The three business cases that are constructed within the thesis are:  Combination of frequency related grid support services for a standalone BESS asset operator. Uninterruptable power supply for a data center. Peak shaving and a combination of frequency related grid support services for an industrial plant.  The, Li-ion BESS is considered to most applicable technology due its fast response time, high power and energy density and scalability to suit the majority of technical functions investigated in the thesis. The business cases economic feasibility is evaluated after two economic indicators, the net present value (NPV) and the payback period. Business case two’s technical function offers no possible revenues and is evaluated as a cost for service where the expenses is divided throughout the project lifetime through linear amortization and the cost per saved kg CO2 is calculated over the lifetime of the BESS. Both business case 1 (NPV= 231.0 MSEK, payback period= 7.8 years) and case 3 (NPV=17.3 MSEK, payback period= 8.8 years) show profitability where business case 2 gives a cost per service between 5.4 and 5.8 MSEK/year and cost per saved kg CO2 between 20.9 and 22.7 SEK/kg CO2.  This thesis focuses on the three largest distribution network operators (DNO) in the distribution network on a regional level: Vattenfall, Eon, and Ellevio. The profitability of the business cases investigated are strongly connected to the location in the network, the voltage connection level, and the type of DNO. Being able to connect to an existing substation on site as for business cases 2 and 3 will lower the capital and operational costs and further improve the profitability. Business case 1 needs a thorough assessment of placement in the electrical infrastructure in Sweden to assure profitability. The NPV and payback period in business cases 1 and 3 could conflict with the interchanging frequency regulation market where prices are rather volatile due to new market initiatives. Therefore, looking forward, building a BESS business case to be implemented comes with lots of uncertainties as the economic incentives shows no guarantee to continuously be profitable. The high price of Li-ion batteries is slowing down the attractiveness of the business cases and need to further decrease to promote profitable business cases. Other ESS technologies as flow batteries and hydrogen storage systems show good applicability to be implemented in the Swedish electrical infrastructure but needs to develop its technical and commercial maturity until it can become competitive with Li-ion BESS.  The master thesis is performed in conjunction with Omexom Infratek Sverige AB with the aim to contribute to a broader understanding of the role of BESS in the Swedish electrical infrastructure and to help building BESS technical offers for Omexom Infratek Sverige AB.

As multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) continues to evolve and find applications in complex real-world systems, the imperative for explainability in these systems becomes increasingly critical. Central to enhancing this explainability is tackling the credit assignment problem, a key challenge in MARL that involves quantifying the individual contributions of agents toward a common goal. In addressing this challenge, this thesis introduces and explores the application of Local and Global Shapley Values (LSV and GSV) within MARL contexts. These novel adaptations of the traditional Shapley value from cooperative game theory are investigated particularly in the context of optimizing remote electrical tilt in telecommunications antennas. Using both predator-prey and remote electrical tilt environments, the study delves into local and global explanations, examining how the Shapley value can illuminate changes in agent contributions over time and across different states, as well as aggregate these insights over multiple episodes. The research findings demonstrate that the use of Shapley values enhances the understanding of individual agent behaviors, offers insights into policy suboptimalities and environmental nuances, and aids in identifying agent redundancies—a feature with potential applications in energy savings in real-world systems. Altogether, this thesis highlights the considerable potential of employing the Shapley value as a tool in explainable MARL. / I takt med utvecklingen och tillämpningen av multi-agent förstärkningsinlärning (MARL) i komplexa verkliga system, blir behovet av förklarbarhet i dessa system allt mer väsentligt. För att förbättra denna förklarbarhet är det viktigt att lösa problemet med belöningstilldelning, en nyckelutmaning i MARL som innefattar att kvantifiera de enskilda bidragen från agenter mot ett gemensamt mål. I denna uppsats introduceras och utforskas tillämpningen av lokala och globala Shapley-värden (LSV och GSV) inom MARL-sammanhang. Dessa nya anpassningar av det traditionella Shapley-värdet från samarbetsbaserad spelteori undersöks särskilt i sammanhanget av att optimera fjärrstyrda elektriska lutningar i telekommunikationsantenner. Genom att använda både rovdjur-byte och fjärrstyrda elektriska lutningsmiljöer fördjupar studien sig i lokala och globala förklaringar, och undersöker hur Shapley-värdet kan belysa förändringar i agenters bidrag över tid och över olika tillstånd, samt sammanfatta dessa insikter över flera episoder. Resultaten visar att användningen av Shapley-värden förbättrar förståelsen för individuella agentbeteenden, erbjuder insikter i policybrister och miljönyanser, och hjälper till att identifiera agentredundanser – en egenskap med potentiella tillämpningar för energibesparingar i verkliga system. Sammanfattningsvis belyser denna uppsats den betydande potentialen av att använda Shapley-värdet som ett verktyg i förklaringsbar MARL.

Οι κυψέλες καυσίμου είναι ηλεκτροχημικές διατάξεις οι οποίες επιτρέπουν την απευθείας μετατροπή της ελεύθερης χημικής ενέργειας ενός καυσίμου σε ηλεκτρική. Οι κυψέλες καυσίμου πολυμερικής μεμβράνης (ΡΕΜ) αποτελούν μία υποσχόμενη τεχνολογία που βρίσκεται κοντά στο στάδιο της εμπορευματοποίησης. Το κυριότερο καύσιμο που χρησιμοποιείται στις κυψέλες καυσίμου είναι το υδρογόνο, το οποίο παράγεται συνήθως από αναμόρφωση υδρογονανθράκων ή αλκοολών. Το μονοξείδιο του άνθρακα που παράγεται επίσης κατά την διαδικασία της αναμόρφωσης αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό άλυτο πρόβλημα στις κυψέλες ΡΕΜ, καθώς η ρόφησή του στην άνοδο της κυψέλης προκαλεί την υποβάθμιση της λειτουργίας της. Το φαινόμενο της ηλεκτροχημικής ενίσχυσης συνίσταται στην μη-φαρανταϊκή τροποποίηση της ενεργότητας ενός καταλύτη που βρίσκεται σε επαφή με έναν στερεό ηλεκτρολύτη, ως αποτέλεσμα της μετακίνησης προωθητικών ειδών από τον ηλεκτρολύτη προς την καταλυτική διεπιφάνεια μετάλλου/αερίου, που προκαλείται από την επιβολή ρεύματος ή δυναμικού μεταξύ του καταλύτη και ενός ηλεκτροδίου αναφοράς. Στην παρούσα διατριβή μελετήθηκε η ηλεκτροχημική ενίσχυση της οξείδωσης μίγματος αναμόρφωσης μεθανόλης από ανόδους πλατίνας και χρυσού μίας κυψέλης ΡΕΜ. Αποδείχθηκε πως η ηλεκτροχημική ενίσχυση επηρεάζεται σημαντικά από το διαχεόμενο διαμέσου της πολυμερικής μεμβράνης οξυγόνο, όπως επίσης και από τις συνθήκες λειτουργίας της κυψέλης καυσίμου. Επίσης μελετήθηκε η ηλεκτρική απόδοση ανόδων πλατίνας και χρυσού παρουσία CO. Προσδιορίστηκαν οι τιμές της ενθαλπίας ρόφησης του CO στα ηλεκτρόδια πλατίνας και χρυσού, καθώς και οι τιμές της ενέργειας ενεργοποίησης της απομάκρυνσης του CO από το κάθε ηλεκτρόδιο. Επίσης μελετήθηκε η επίδραση της θερμοκρασίας στο φαινόμενο της πολλαπλότητας μονίμων καταστάσεων κατά την λειτουργία κυψελών ΡΕΜ. Παρατηρήθηκε εξασθένηση του φαινομένου με την αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας, σε συμφωνία με τις προβλέψεις του μοντέλου γ. / Fuel cells are electrochemical devices which convert chemical energy of a fuel directly to electricity. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are close to commercialization. The most common fuel used is hydrogen, which is usually produced via hydrocarbons or alcohol reforming. However, during this process, carbon monoxide is formed as well, adsorbs strongly on the anode of the cell and thus impairs significantly its performance. The electrochemical promotion effect is a phenomenon where application of constant current or potential between a catalyst supported on a solid electrolyte and a reference electrode, leads to non-Faradaic changes in catalytic activity. In this thesis, it was studied the electrochemical promotion of oxidation of a methanol reformate mixture on platinum and gold anodes of a PEM fuel cell. It was found that electrochemical promotion is influenced by oxygen crossover through the polymer membrane and also by the cell operating conditions. Moreover, the electrical efficiency of platinum and gold anodes in presence of CO was studied and the values of the heat of CO adsorption on each anode and the activation energies of CO removal were estimated. Finally, the effect of temperature on the phenomenon of steady-state multiplicities was studied. It was found that increasing the temperature, the phenomenon of multiplicities is suppressed in agreement with the gama model.

During this thesis, it has been proved that the electrical conductivity of multilayered and electrically anisotropic carbon fiber materials can be expressed by an equivalent second order tensor, which is equal to sum of each layer’s electrical conductivity tensor. The aforementioned equivalent electrical conductivity tensor is valid assuming that the material’s thickness is negligible compared to the other dimensions of the body. The mathematical expression for the prediction of the electrical conductivity of a multilayered material for any stacking sequence, is based on the electric current conservation, and was validated using different methods. Each layer’s electrical conductivity was experimentally studied at the two principal directions. Transverse to the fibers’ direction, an empirical model was developed for the prediction of the electrical conductivity as a function of the layer’s thickness, of the fibre volume fraction and of temperature. All cases involved the study of multidirectional and unidirectional carbon fiber materials without the presence of matrix (porous form – CF preform) as well as in the presence of polymeric matrix (CFRP). The validation of the equivalent tensor was achieved through three different ways: a) through the measurement of the electric resistance, for various stacking sequences, b) through the Joule heating effect, by recording and comparing the developing temperature field to the respective numerically calculated, c) through 3D numerical models which approximate the analytical solution of the 2D domain problem. Moreover using the finite difference method, certain electrothermal models were developed in order to study the temperature field for different stacking sequences. The electrical problem can be expressed by an elliptic PDE, for the case where the material is electrically anisotropic and homogeneous, or non-homogeneous. On the other hand, the transient heat transfer problem involves the case where the material is thermally anisotropic and homogeneous. Using the equivalent tensor, the 3D domain problem is simplified to a 2D domain problem resulting in less computational requirements for the solution of the problem. The present research study could be used in a plethora of application, such as the development of carbon fibre reinforced heating elements (direct heating CFRP molds) as well as damage detection in multidirectional composite materials with electrical conductive reinforcement. / Κατά τη διάρκεια της παρούσας διδακτορική διατριβής, αποδείχθηκε ότι η ηλεκτρική αγωγιμότητα των πολύστρωτων και ηλεκτρικά ανισότροπων υλικών με ίνες άνθρακα, μπορεί να εκφραστεί από έναν ισοδύναμο τανυστή δεύτερης τάξης, ο οποίος είναι το άθροισμα των τανυστών κάθε στρώσης. Ο ισοδύναμος τανυστής ισχύει υποθέτοντας ότι το πάχος συγκριτικά με τις υπόλοιπες διαστάσεις του υλικού είναι πολύ μικρό. Η μαθηματική έκφραση με την οποία μπορεί να προβλεφθεί η ηλεκτρική αγωγιμότητα ενός πολύστρωτου υλικού για οποιαδήποτε αλληλουχία στρώσεων αποδείχτηκε με συστηματικό τρόπο και βασίζεται στην αρχή διατήρησης του ηλεκτρικού φορτίου. Η ηλεκτρική αγωγιμότητα κάθε στρώσης μελετήθηκε πειραματικά στις δύο κύριες διευθύνσεις. Κάθετα στη διεύθυνση των ινών αναπτύχθηκε ένα εμπειρικό μοντέλο πρόβλεψης της ηλεκτρικής αγωγιμότητας συναρτήσει του πάχους της στρώσης, της περιεκτικότητας σε ίνες άνθρακα και της θερμοκρασίας. Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις μελετήθηκαν πολύστρωτα υλικά ινών άνθρακα χωρίς μήτρα (πορώδης μορφή-CF preforms) και με πολυμερική μήτρα (CFRPs). Η επιβεβαίωση της εγκυρότητας του ισοδύναμου τανυστή έγινε με τρεις διαφορετικούς τρόπους: α) μέσω μετρήσεων της ηλεκτρικής αντίστασης, για διαφορετικές αλληλουχίες στρώσεων, β) μέσω του φαινομένου Joule, καταγράφοντας και συγκρίνοντας το αναπτυσσόμενο θερμοκρασιακό πεδίο με το θερμοκρασιακό πεδίο που υπολογίζεται αριθμητικά, γ) μέσω τρισδιάστατων αριθμητικών μοντέλων όπου τείνουν στην αναλυτική λύση του δισδιάστατου προβλήματος. Στη συνέχεια αναπτύχτηκαν ηλεκτροθερμικά μοντέλα με τη μέθοδο των πεπερασμένων διαφορών με σκοπό τη μελέτη του θερμοκρασιακού πεδίου για διαφορετικές αλληλουχίες στρώσεων. Το ηλεκτρικό πρόβλημα εκφράζεται από μία ελλειπτική διαφορική εξίσωση όπου το υλικό είναι ηλεκτρικά ανισότροπο και ομογενές ή μη ομογενές ενώ το θερμικό πρόβλημα είναι θερμικά ανισότροπο και ομογενές. Χρησιμοποιώντας τον ισοδύναμο τανυστή το τρισδιάστατο πρόβλημα μετατρέπεται σε ένα δισδιάστατο πρόβλημα με αποτέλεσμα να απαιτούνται λιγότεροι πόροι για την επίλυση του προβλήματος. Η συγκεκριμένη εργασία μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε μία πληθώρα εφαρμογών όπως στην ανάπτυξη και στη λειτουργία θερμαινόμενων στοιχείων ενισχυμένων με ίνες άνθρακα (καλούπια όπου το θερμαντικό στοιχείο το αποτελούν οι ίνες άνθρακα) αλλά και στην ανίχνευση βλάβης συνθέτων υλικών με αγώγιμη ενίσχυση.

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As células eletroquímicas emissoras de luz são dispositivos eletroluminescentes cuja camada ativa é uma mistura de um material eletroluminescente e um eletrólito sólido a base de sais de metais alcalinos, geralmente lítio. A presença dos íons na camada ativa modificam o mecanismo de funcionamento das células quando comparadas ao diodos emissores de luz. Nas células, a concentração de íons nas interfaces eletródicas forma uma dupla camada elétrica que auxilia a injeção de cargas na camada ativa, por sua vez e na presença dos íons, o material eletroluminescente sofre dopagem se tornando condutor, os portadores injetados irão se encontrar numa região da camada ativa recombinando-se e emitindo luz. Compreender as interações dos diversos materiais que formam a camada ativa é fundamental para otimizar o desempenho do dispositivo. Neste trabalho estudamos a interação do ADS108GE, um polímero luminescente, e um eletrólito sólido a base de poli (óxido de etileno) (PEO) e LiCF3SO3 ou LiB(C2O4)2. O LiB(C2O4)2 foi sintetizado neste trabalho para estudar a viabilidade de se substituir o LiCF3SO3 que é o sal tipicamente utilizado nas células. Foram utilizadas técnicas de Análise Dinâmico-Mecânica (DMA), Espectroscopia Vibracional no Infravermelho (FTIR), Microscopia de Força Atômica (AFM), Difração de Raios-X (DRX), Microscopia Óptica de Varredura no Campo Próximo (IR-SNOM), Impedância Elétrica e Voltametria Cíclica. Os resultados de DMA em conjunto com DRX e AFM, permitiram estabelecer que o aumento da concentração de sal contribui para mudanças morfológicas que se relacionam com o aumento da fração de fase amorfa e independem do ânion, demonstrando que estes efeitos estão ligados à interação PEO-Lítio. Por outro lado, os espectros de FTIR e resultados de impedância elétrica mostram que o aumento da concentração de LiCF3SO3 gera agregação do sal diminuindo a condutividade, a mobilidade iônica e o número de portadores efetivos, enquanto para o LiB(C2O4)2 não se observa tal efeito. O IR-SNOM permitiu identificar nas misturas utilizadas como camada ativa que o ADS108GE forma estruturas globulares embebidas numa matriz de PEO. Do ponto de vista operacional, as células a base de LiB(C2O4)2 possuem uma eficiência maior do que as a base LiCF3SO3 e maior estabilidade. / Light-emitting electrochemical cells are electroluminescent devices whose active layer is a mixture of an electroluminescent material and a solid electrolyte based on alkaline salts, usually a lithium salt. The ions within thea ctive layer change the devices working mechanism when compared to light emitting diodes. In the cells, there is an ion build up at electrodic interfaces creating an electric double layer allowing charge injection in the active layer. The electroluminescent material is doped by these injected charges becoming conductive. These injected charges recombine emitting light. In order to optimize devices performance, it is fundamental to study materials interactions when mixed as an active layer. In this work, we studied the interactions between ADS108GE, a luminescent polymer, and a solid electrolyte based on polyethylene oxide and LiCF3SO3 or LiB(C2O4)2. LiB(C2O4)2 was prepared in this work to assess its feasibility as LiCF3SO3 substitution which is the typical choice. We used the following techniques in this work: Dynamical Mechanical Analysis (DMA), Infrared Vibration Spectroscopy (FTIR), Atomic Force Microscopy AFM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Infrared Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (IRSNOM), Electrical Impedance and Cyclic Voltammetry. From DMA, XRD and AFM results, it is possible to conclude that as we increase salt concentration, the active layer has morphological changes related to an increasing fraction of an amorphous phase. These effects are anion independent showing that PEO-Li interactions are the responsible ones. On the other hand, FITR and electrical impedance experiments show that increasing LiCF3SO3 concentration leads to salt aggregation decreasing conductivity, ionic mobility and the effective number of carriers, moreover, we do not see this effect with LiB(C2O4)2. IR-SNOM identified that ADS108GE were organized as globular structures embedded in a PEO matrix. The cells made with LiB(C2O4)2 were more efficient than those based on LiCF3SO3 and were even more stable.

[pt] A necessidade de simular um ambiente de mercado competitivo para incentivar ganhos de eficiência fez a Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL) estipular metas para indicadores gerenciáveis, dentre eles o nível de perdas não técnicas (PNT’s) das distribuidoras de energia elétrica. Os prejuízos causados pelas perdas não técnicas de energia chegam à ordem de oito bilhões de reais anuais e impactam diretamente nos valores tarifários em exercício. É nesse contexto que a ANEEL, inspirada nas práticas de regulação por incentivo, estabeleceu um modelo econométrico que relaciona o nível aceitável de perdas não técnicas com a complexidade social das áreas de concessão das distribuidoras brasileiras. Entretanto, entidades do setor enxergam no modelo espaços para melhoria nos resultados e na robustez teórica do modelo, com isso, surge a idéia de propor uma abordagem de estimação diferenciada. É importante ressaltar que além da previsão, tem-se por objetivo testar novas variáveis potencialmente relevantes nesta análise, baseadas na recente literatura acerca do tema. O presente estudo demonstra que a variável de interesse, perdas não técnicas, não segue a distribuição normal, sendo assim, buscou-se a verdadeira distribuição dos dados e a modelagem se deu seguindo os arcabouços da abordagem linear generalizada. Os resultados corroboraram a aderência de uma distribuição que pertence a família exponencial (condição para a aplicação da abordagem linear generalizada). Além disso, o modelo proposto obteve boas estimativas, trazendo inclusive novas variáveis importantes para explicar as perdas não técnicas não utilizadas antes em outros estudos sobre estas perdas. O modelo proposto pode ser visto como uma alternativa viável ao modelo praticado pela ANEEL, sendo assim, sua discussão fundamental para o próximo ciclo de revisão tarifária. / [en] The need of simulating a competitive market environment in order to encourage efficiency gains made the National Electrical Energy Agency (ANEEL) fixes targets for manageable indicators, including the level of non-technical losses (NTL s) of electricity distributors. The financial damage caused by losses not techniques reach the order of eight billion reais per year and directly impacts on the electricity tariffs. In this context, ANEEL inspired by the practice of regulation by incentives, established an econometric model that relates the acceptable level non-technical losses to the social complexity in concession areas of each Brazilian distributor. However, entities in the sector find gaps in the model and improvement in the results and robustness of the model should be done, this brings idea of proposing a different approach to the estimation. It is important to emphasize that in addition to forecasting, there is the willing of testing new variables potentially relevant in this analysis, based on recent literature on the subject. This study proves that the variable of interest, nontechnical losses, does not follow the Gaussian distribution, thus, we sought the true distribution of data and modeling took place in the frameworks of general linear approach. The results confirm adherence to a distribution that belongs to the exponential family (condition for applying the generalized linear approach model), in addition, the proposed model obtained good estimates, including the use of new important variables to explain the non-technical losses not used in other studies. The proposed model can be seen as possible alternative to the model used by ANEEL, so, its discussion is really important to the next review cycle of electricity rates.

Šiame darba nagrinėjamos gyvenamųjų namų elektros apkrovos, elektros energijos suvartojimas. Pateikiami elektros apkrovų grafikai. Nagrinėjama kaip projektinė skaičiuojamoji galia keičiasi 47 metų laikotarpyje. Siūlomi būdai kaip nustatyti buto, namo skaičiuojamąsias apkrovas. Tiriama kiek realios namo skaičiuojamosios apkrovos skiriasi nuo projektinių. / This thesis addresses the residential electric load power consumption. Schedule of electrical loads. The present computational power of design changes 47-year period. Suggest ways to identify flat house computational loads. Investigated as far as the actual building computational load is different from the design.

This thesis is dedicated to investigation of carrier dynamics in 3C-SiC crystals and heterostructures by using light-induced transient gratings and differential transmission techniques. The experimental studies in a wide range of excess carrier densities and temperatures revealed the influence of several particular growth conditions in different growth techniques on electronic properties of grown layers, and hence, a possibility to characterize indirectly the structural perfection of a layer by non-destructive optical means. Based on these results, we were able to evaluate and compare quality of 3C-SiC specimens manufactured by nearly all currently available growth techniques and to distinguish the most promising growth methods for 3C-SiC semiconductor. Moreover, we found a novel way, based on DT technique, to determine the carrier trap concentration in finite thickness layers, as well as to attribute them to specific impurity species. Finally, we investigated the influence of substrate surface features on carrier lifetime and mobility of the overgrown layers. / Disertacija yra skirta krūvininkų dinamikos tyrimams 3C-SiC kristaluose ir heterostruktūrose naudojant šviesa indukuotų dinaminių gardelių ir diferencinio pralaidumo metodikas. Atlikti tyrimai plačiame žadinimų ir temperatūros intervale atskleidė skirtingų auginimo technologijų ir jų tam tikrų parametrų įtaką opto-elektroninėms užaugintų sluoksnių savybėms, kas įgalino atlikti medžiagos neardančią, optinę kristalų struktūrinės kokybės charakterizaciją. Remiantis gautais rezultatais mes galėjome palyginti visomis plačiausiai naudojamomis auginimo technologijomis užaugintų 3C-SiC bandinių kokybę, taigi ir įvertinti perspektyviausią 3C-SiC puslaidininkio auginimo metodą. Šiame darbe atradome naują būdą, paremtą diferencinio pralaidumo metodika, krūvininkų gaudyklių koncentracijos ir šių priemaišinių atomų prigimties nustatymui pakankamai plonuose sluoksniuose. Taip pat, tyrėme padėklo paviršiaus įtaką krūvininkų gyvavimo laikui ir judriui epitaksiniuose sluoksniuose.

Disertacija yra skirta krūvininkų dinamikos tyrimams 3C-SiC kristaluose ir heterostruktūrose naudojant šviesa indukuotų dinaminių gardelių ir diferencinio pralaidumo metodikas. Atlikti tyrimai plačiame žadinimų ir temperatūros intervale atskleidė skirtingų auginimo technologijų ir jų tam tikrų parametrų įtaką opto-elektroninėms užaugintų sluoksnių savybėms, kas įgalino atlikti medžiagos neardančią, optinę kristalų struktūrinės kokybės charakterizaciją. Remiantis gautais rezultatais mes galėjome palyginti visomis plačiausiai naudojamomis auginimo technologijomis užaugintų 3C-SiC bandinių kokybę, taigi ir įvertinti perspektyviausią 3C-SiC puslaidininkio auginimo metodą. Šiame darbe atradome naują būdą, paremtą diferencinio pralaidumo metodika,krūvininkų gaudyklių koncentracijos ir šių priemaišinių atomų prigimties nustatymui pakankamai plonuose sluoksniuose. Taip pat, tyrėme padėklo paviršiaus įtaką krūvininkų gyvavimo laikui ir judriui epitaksiniuose sluoksniuose. / This thesis is dedicated to investigation of carrier dynamics in 3C-SiC crystals and heterostructures by using light-nduced transient gratings and differential transmission techniques. The experimental studies in a wide range of excess carrier densities and temperatures revealed the influence of several particular growth conditions in different growth techniques onelectronic properties of grown layers, and hence, a possibility to characterize indirectly the structural perfection of a layer by non-destructive optical means. Based on these results, we were able to evaluate and compare quality of 3C-SiC specimens manufactured by nearly all currently available growth techniques and to distinguish the most promising growth methods for 3C-SiC semiconductor. Moreover, we found a novel way, based on DT technique, to determine the carrier trap concentration in finite thickness layers, as well as to attribute them to specific impurity species. Finally, we investigated the influence of substratesurface features on carrier lifetime and mobility of the overgrown layers.