The aim of this thesis is to enlighten intrapreneurship as a subject and the implementations and effect it has on small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) pushing towards organizational change in developing countries. Therefore the specific traits of SMEs in developing countries are examined and related to the promotion of intraprenuership. To gain deeper understanding and achieve the aim of the study a research question was created; How can Swedish SMEs foster intrapreneurship in order to create organizational change in developing countries?   The theoretical framework in this thesis is divided into three main areas; organizational change, promotion of intrapreneurship and innovation. In this study a qualitative methodology with an abductive approach is used. The empirical data is collected through interviews of three companies; Norden Machinery AB, Bigso AB and Sara Woodcraft.   In the analysis the empirical data is analyzed based on the theoretical framework which leads to the conclusion. This study show that first and foremost intrapreneurship does create organizational change and is an important part of survival for SMEs in developing countries and further that promotion of intrapreneurship demands certain factors to be successful. These factors are ways for organizations to create an environment where innovation and intrapreneurship grows. Furthermore we present what we argue the current theory lack and our contribution as well as managerial implementations which focus on the promotion of intrapreneurship and further research within the subject. / Syftet med denna avhandling är att upplysa intraprenörskap som ämne och genom detta implementera effekterna det har på små- och medelstora företag som strävar efter organisatoriska förändringar i utvecklingsländer. Därför har de specifika egenskaperna hos små- och medelstora företag aktiva i utvecklingsländer granskats och relaterats till främjandet av intraprenörskap. För att få en djupare förståelse och uppnå syftet med denna studie har en forskningsfråga formulerat: Hur kan svenska små och medelstora företag främja intraprenörskap för att skapa organisatoriska förändringar i utvecklingsländer?   Den teoretiska referensramen i denna avhandling är indelad i tre huvudområden; organisatoriska förändringar, främjande av intraprenörskap och innovation. I denna studie användes en kvalitativ metod med en abduktiv ansats, och den empiriska datan samlades in genom intervjuer med tre företag; Norden Machinery AB, Bigso AB och Sara Woodcraft.   I analysen kombineras den teoretiska referensram med den empiriska data som sedan leder till en slutsats. Denna studie visar i första hand att intraprenörskap skapar organisatoriska förändringar och är en viktig del av överlevandet för små och medelstora företag i utvecklingsländer vilket kräver vissa faktorer för att åstadkommas. Dessa faktorer finns för att skapa en miljö inom organisationer där innovation och intraprenörskap växer. Slutligen presenterar vi det teoretiska gap som vi anser finns inom forskningsämnet och ger förslag på hur den kan förbättras, praktiska rekommendationer fokuserade på att främja intraprenörskap mot organisatorisk förändring samt rekommendation till vidare forskning.

There is disagreement in the literature about the relative roles of selection (competition) and adaptation in explaining industrial change. For some, the possibilities for adaptation by individual firms are highly limited, and instead the key drivers of industry-level change are the extinction of some firms and the birth of others. Others stress that survival is all about the ways in which a firm can choose to adapt to changes in the external environment and to changes in competition. This dissertation takes the view there is a false dichotomy between adaptation and selection, that they are not opposites and that adaptation is an essential an unavoidable part of any relevant evolutionary process. Even if selection generates larger industry-level outcomes, adaptability is still important. It is then an empirical matter of the relative strengths of adaptability and selection in particular circumstances. The work makes a clear distinction between an adaptation, a change to an individual (firm) that enables the individual to be better fitted to its environment, and adaptability, the potential to adjust to changes in the selection environment. In looking for causal explanations, the approach adopted here acknowledges that causes relate to potentialities or dispositions and not to effects or events. Using this approach, the adopted methodology maintains that business routines, even when defined as capacities or dispositions rather than behaviours, can still be measured and used to generate an adaptability instrument. It is then possible to look at the relationship between the adaptability instrument and survival. The research looks particularly at the adaptability and survival of small and medium size firms, as they constitute the majority of enterprises in the UK and are empirically under-represented in previous research. This thesis looks at the evolution of populations of such firms through the mix of firm-level adaptation and selection in the population. The methodology concentrated on the four constituent areas of any firm: sales and marketing, production, administration and human resources, and corporate strategy. It examined not the quantities of operation in routines as in many previous studies but the levels of adaptability firms perceive they actually achieve or believe they would experience in the face of both continuous and discontinuous internal and external change. The adaptability instrument is the composite measure of the potential to adapt routines across the four constituent areas, capturing a picture of the interactions between the strategies, structures and procedures within the firm. The methodology also involved a relatively large sample of observations of a representative set of small and medium-sized enterprises, addressing the lack of previous empirical work on datasets of a whole population of firms taken from multiple industries and sectors. It was also possible to re-sample respondents in the depths of a recession 18 months later in order to look at the relationship between previously calculated adaptability and the subsequent degree of survival. The results challenge the exclusive role of selection only in explaining industry attributes and suggest that adaptability is important for firm survival. Even if selection generates larger industry-level outcomes, adaptability is still important. The research demonstrates that both competitive selection and developmental adaptability combine to explain industrial change and that any differences in adaptability between firms are of significance. In a sharp recession, however, only the firms with more potential to adapt their output in response to falling demand, and so better protect their cash flow against any contracting credit availability, have an advantage relative to their rivals that can confer relatively greater longevity and survivability. Other factors contribute to survival more strongly in recession than in more stable times and, while adaptability still matters, the slightly lower adaptability of older cohorts of firms masks the positive value of adaptability. At the individual firm level during sharp recession, indirect competition through customers choosing not to spend, or spend scarce resources elsewhere, rapidly de-selects those with weak cash flow management, poor cash reserves or poor credit worthiness. The criteria adopted for degrees of failure were heavily dependent on the context of use but reflected common parlance among the survey respondents. The findings of this research point to the merits of a theoretical framework different from much textbook economics, strategy-choice theory and organisational ecology. The findings support an evolutionary approach that in turn corresponds with recent developments in the theoretical framework known as Generalised Darwinism.

Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) offers a peoplemanagement framework which promotes improved performance, innovation and competitiveness. However, little research has considered how such practices are implemented within Construction SMEs, and whether they complement overall business strategy. The nature of the UK construction industry requires construction organisations to balance project requirements with competing organisational and individual employee expectations, priorities and needs. This conflict raises several complex and problematic issues for SHRM within the construction industry as well as opportunities for improvement. However to date, despite this sector exhibiting the well-known `labour-intensive' and `people oriented' characteristics, there is little informed understanding of the complex interplay of factors that shape strategic decision making processes, and approaches to SHRM within construction SMEs. The overall aim of this thesis was to explore the types of HRM strategies used by construction SMEs and develop a framework to improve their organisational performance. The objectives of the research were: 1) To establish whether construction SMEs undertake strategic management, the types of strategies employed and how they implement their strategies, 2) To establish whether construction SMEs undertake SHRM, the types of strategies employed, how they implement their strategies and whether size of firm influences their practices; 3) Examine the relationship between the different SHRM approaches, the associated strategic organisational goals, in order to establish whether the approaches and goals are mutually supportive; and 4) To develop a framework linking SHRM approaches to specific organisational goals for construction SMEs. (Continues ...).

The increasing commercial and social pressure for business leaders to act in a socially responsible manner is undermined by the lack of standards in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) legislation, auditing, indexing, and reporting. Moreover, CSR research is fragmentary and often missing empirical corroboration. It lacks synthesis, uses CSR concepts and terms ambiguously, and is inconsistent in the identification of CSR practices, its formulation and institutionalisation. This study addresses these gaps and discontinuities by first synthesising a range of theories into an explanatory framework. This framework provides the pre-understanding for the collection and analysis of qualitative data drawn from the UK oil and gas industry. The findings highlight the heterogeneous and dynamic nature of CSR operationalisation. The analysis emphasises the dependence of CSR strategy formulation on business leaders’ personal beliefs and biases. These beliefs are tempered by balancing shareholders’ interests and stakeholders’ expectations, and are affected by the global (in the case of corporations) or the local (in the case of corporate subsidiaries and small-medium size enterprises) contexts. These appear to be the main factors influencing leaders’ CSR decisions. The findings also demonstrate a number of challenges that business leaders face when reconciling personal, organisational, industry, global, and societal values and ethical beliefs; and balancing traditional organisational goals, such as profit maximisation, with increased stakeholder empowerment in granting social legitimacy. In addition, the exploration of CSR institutionalisation reveals different approaches in corporate subsidiaries, which fluctuate between the CSR practices of corporate headquarters and those of SMEs. The analysis of these findings results in a proposed hybrid model of CSR Institutionalisation in the oil and gas industry, with a breakdown of identified factors affecting corporate, SMEs’, and subsidiaries’ leaders’ CSR decisions. This thesis contributes to the literature by proposing a number of concepts, including: CSR Nexus and CSR Dynamics models as conceptual syntheses of the theoretical framework; an empirically corroborated CSR Operationalisation model within the studied organisations suggesting a nonconformance with extant CSR research; an observed matrix of business leaders’ CSR Motivations highlighting their diversity in corporations, SMEs, and corporate subsidiaries. Finally, a conceptual CSR Convergence model is proposed, which outlines a comprehensive approach to CSR education and implementation. In a weak and ambiguous CSR regulation and legislation environment, this study endeavours to bridge the gap between CSR research, business organisations, and stakeholders by contributing to the enhancement of CSR understanding, education, and implementation.

L'étude des difficultés d'accès des Petites et Moyennes Entreprises (PME) tunisiennes aux fonds montre que ces entreprises connaissent un “déficit d'intégration bancaire” qui peut être expliqué par la théorie du rationnement du crédit. La réticence des banques tunisiennes à s'impliquer dans le financement des PME est en grande partie expliquée par les caractéristiques structurelles et financières du système bancaire tunisien qui connaît une prépondérance des banques de dépôts se traduisant par une limitation de la concurrence sur le coût de financement. Elle est aussi expliquée par les faiblesses qu'enregistre la Tunisie en matière de partage d'information de crédit et de protection légale des créanciers tout au long de l'opération de financement.La vérification empirique du rationnement des PME sur le marché du crédit bancaire tunisien est fondée sur une estimation d'un modèle de déséquilibre sur la base d'un échantillon de données de panel composé de 1760 PME sur la période 2001-2006. Les résultats obtenus montrent que les PME tunisiennes, dépendantes du crédit bancaire, cherchent à éviter de mobiliser cette source de financement chaque fois qu'elles enregistrent une augmentation de leurs ressources internes ou font recours au crédit fournisseur. La très forte aversion au risque des banques fait que la décision d'offre du crédit dépend principalement de la garantie réelle et se traduit par une proportion moyenne d'environ 90% des entreprises qui sont - partiellement ou totalement - rationnées. / The study of Tunisian Small and Medium-size Enterprises (SMEs) difficulties to access to funds shows that these enterprises experience a “banking integration deficit” that can be explained by credit rationing theory. The reluctance of Tunisian banks to become involved in SMEs' financing is largely explained by the structural and financial characteristics of the Tunisian banking system whereof of the dominance of commercial banks results in a limitation of competition on the financing cost. It is also explained by the weaknesses experienced by Tunisia as regards the sharing information and the creditors legal protection throughout the financing transaction.The empirical verification of Tunisian SMEs' credit rationing on the Tunisian bank credit market is founded on an estimate of a disequilibrium model on the basis of a panel data set of 1760 Tunisian SMEs over the period 2001-2006. Results show that Tunisian SMEs, dependent on bank credit, seek to avoid the call for this source of financing every time they experience an increase in their internal resources or have recourse to trade credit. The very strong risk aversion of banks makes the credit supply decision mainly dependent on real guarantee, and results to an average proportion of 90% - partially or totally - credit rationed enterprises.

Workers in labour-intensive industries in developing countries have been described as the ‘hidden hands’ in the making of valuable goods in global production networks (GPNs). The process of improving the rights and entitlements of workers in GPNs have been referred to as ’social upgrading’. However, literature on social upgrading has tended to overlook the role of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and there is still little scientific understanding of how small businesses in developing countries can engage in social upgrading. The aim of this thesis is to enhance the understanding of how SMEs in developing countries can improve working conditions and labour rights. Through a qualitative case study, this study goes beyond statements of leading Fair Trade brands to provide insights based on voices of both workers and owner-managers in a small garment factory in Nepal. This study brings forward observations where SMEs, shaped by their characteristics, are enabled to evade responsibilities concerning working conditions and labour rights.

The positive relationship of firm-level entrepreneurship and performance has received much attention in recent years and has become an attractive title in the entrepreneurship literature. This popularity encourages researchers to study the role played by the phenomenon on other organizational outputs such as internationalization. Until now, the majority of international studies have put their attention on the conceptual explanation of the interaction, and the number of empirical studies on the subject is few. Furthermore, almost all the empirical studies have been performed in developed and emerging markets, and developing areas such as the Middle East are nearly ignored. In the real context of Iranian business, policymakers support entrepreneurship as a proven way to improve the internationalization of smaller companies. Following this assumption, several supportive plans have been designed and executed which aim to increase the entrepreneurial status of SMEs as a way to enhance their internationalization. A question worth answering here is: Does having a better entrepreneurial stature mean better internationalization for Iranian SMEs? To answer this question and to fill the gap in the literature on the subject, this research explains the relationship of firm-level entrepreneurship and the internationalization of Iranian SMEs. To resolve the current conceptualization problem of firm-level entrepreneurship and to respect a broad conceptualization of entrepreneurship, a profile measurement model was employed in which companies are classified into four different groups: non-entrepreneurial, forced entrepreneurial, latent entrepreneurial, and actual entrepreneurial. This profile model incorporates the two popular constructs of entrepreneurial orientation and corporate entrepreneurship to determine the entrepreneurial stature of a company. Surprisingly, while the literature predicted the highest level of internationalization for actual entrepreneurial companies, the forced entrepreneurial firms showed the best internationalization in reality. The only exception was when the environments became very hostile, in which the actual entrepreneurial SMEs suppressed the forced entrepreneurial, showing better internationalization. These unexpected conclusions led the researcher to consider the complementary role of business networks. A case study approach was applied. The results revealed the importance of actor type in the decision to enter a foreign market, structural holes in identifying international opportunities, and network closure in realizing the opportunities. In simpler words, the forced entrepreneurial company held a better position to receive the information about international markets because most actors who dealt with them where international companies. In addition, it enjoyed an external network rich of structural holes and a dense internal network, which respectively facilitated the exploration and exploitation of subsequent international opportunities. All in all, however, firm-level entrepreneurship seems an important factor of companies’ internationalization that could somehow justify why entrepreneurial companies show better international activities than nonentrepreneurial firms, it is not able to explain how different types of entrepreneurial companies could hold different levels of internationalization. This is the mutual interaction of entrepreneurial status and the network structure that presents a powerful explanation of the difference in internationalization among companies. Therefore, researchers are invited to focus more on a configurational analysis of firm-level entrepreneurship, network structure, and internationalization, and policymakers are recommended to see both entrepreneurship and business networks when they design a supportive plan to improve the internationalization of SMEs. / <p>In the printed version is the ISBN incorrrect: 978-91-7519-497-4. The ISBN is corrected in the electronic version.</p>

Syftet med forskningen är att skapa förståelse för hur riskjustering tillämpas vid användandet av kapitalbudgeteringstekniker men även varför bolag riskjusterar subjektivt eller objektivt beroende på företagsstorlek och avsaknaden av informationen om investeringens kassaflöden. Således är forskningsfrågan Hur påverkar informationsasymmetrin kring investeringens kassaflöden riskjusteringen vid användandet av kapitalbudgeteringstekniker? Studiens forskningsstrategi har en induktiv ansats. För att skapa en djupare förståelse är metodvalet för studien av den kvalitativa typen med semistrukturerade intervjuer där åtta tillverkande icke-börsnoterade aktiebolag i Sverige har undersökts. Intervjun bestod av semistrukturerade frågor för att tillåta respondenten tala fritt. De övergripande resultaten för studien är: (1) att den primära kapitalbudgeteringstekniken är Payback, (2) stora företagen i studien använder inte sofistikerade kapitalbudgeteringstekniker, (3) SME- företag har låg precision i investeringens kassaflöden, medan stora företag innehar en hög precision i investeringens kassaflöden, (4) Stora företag riskjusterar subjektivt medan SME-företag riskjusterar objektivt. Avslutningsvis lyfter studien fram förslag på vidare forskning. / The purpose with this study is to create an understanding of how risk adjustment is applied to the use of capital budgeting techniques, but also why companies risk adjust subjectively or objectively, depending on company size and lack of information on investment flows. Thus, the research question How does the information asymmetry in Investment cash flows affect the risk adjustment in the use of capital budgeting techniques? The research strategy in this study has an inductive approach. In order to create a deeper understanding of this study, the choice of method is qualitative with semi-structured interviews where eight non-listed companies within manufacturing in Sweden have been investigated. The interview consisted of semistructured questions to allow the respondent to speak freely. The overall results of the study are: (1) the primary capital budgeting technique is Payback, (2) large companies in the study do not use sophisticated capital budgeting techniques, (3) SME companies have low precision investment flows, while large companies hold a high precision in investment flows, (4) Large companies risk adjusts subjectively while the SMEs risk-adjust objectively. Finally, the study raises proposals on further research.

Internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) has been a considerable concern for international business (IB) scholars. Particularly, for those economies such as Sweden with small local markets, internationalization of SMEs could be fundamental. The firm-specific advantages (FSAs), including what the firm has and does, are crucial for SMEs to overcome in the face of their numerous different obstacles such as liability of smallness (LOS) and liability of foreignness (LOF). Examining the extant literature on the evolution of IB theories indicates that over time, IB scholars have been reaching to dynamic-based FSAs (what the firm does) as the source of developing and protecting sustainable competitive advantages (SCA) across national borders in a changing business environment. The nature of dynamic-based FSAs could be similar to dynamic capabilities. But, when it comes to determining specific component factors  of dynamic-based  FSAs  (as dynamic  capabilities),  there has been little agreement between IB researchers. In other words, the room of the dynamic capabilities is still dark. In this respect, shedding light into this room, particularly in the area of IB studies, is crucial. In addition, after determining the component factors of the dynamic-based FSAs, it is also critical to know the likely relationships between the identified component factors as well as their impact on the SMEs’ international performance (IP) as an important outcome of the internationalization. This means that there is a potential theoretical gap associated with the conceptualization of the component factors of the dynamic-based FSAs on one hand, and a potential empirical gap on the other. Given both theoretical and empirical research gaps, the purpose of this study is to examine, from a theoretical perspective, the nature of the dynamic-based FSA and its related component factors in the IB context, as well as empirically explore how SMEs’ IP is influenced by the identified component factors of the dynamic-based FSAs. To perform this study, first of all, based on lenses of the resource-based view (RBV) and dynamic capability view (DCV), the literature on organizational capability in the context of the IB studies was systematically reviewed to fill the theoretical gap. Consequently, three component factors of dynamic-based FSAs including networking capability (NC) as a relational-based FSA, innovative capability (IC) as an innovative-based FSA and absorptive capacity (ACAP) as a learning-based FSA were identified, all of which are pluripotent and dynamic in nature. Then, a deductive approach was followed to develop several hypotheses and the associated conceptual model. Furthermore, a survey strategy, collecting data from 330 Swedish internationalized manufacturing SMEs, was applied to accomplish the purpose of the study. Then, the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) as a quantitative method was used to analyze the collected data. The results of the PLS-SEM analysis show that the SMEs’ international performance (IP) is positively influenced by the three identified component factors, whether directly or indirectly. In this regard, ACAP and NC are the two reliable predictors (directly) of the SMEs’ IP. The results indicate that innovative capability (IC) does not have direct impact on the SMEs’ IP, and that its effect is fully transmitted on IP only by the mediating effect of the networking capability (NC). Further analysis showed that ACAP, as an endogenous latent variable, additionally has a positive indirect association with SMEs’ international performance (IP). Moreover, the results also indicate that innovative capability is directly and positively affected by ACAP (innovating-by-learning effect). It was also empirically revealed that ACAP is a very strong predictor for networking capability, which is labeled as the networking-by-learning effect. Another major finding was that in internationalized SMEs, NC is strongly, directly and positively affected by IC; this effect also is termed as the networking-by-innovating effect. The overall picture resulting from the PLS- SEM analysis indicates that ACAP in internationalized SMEs is a wellspring to develop both innovative capability and networking capability, as well as influence SMEs’ IP. Furthermore, these results suggest that the networking capability is a vital gateway to transmit the effect of the other two component factors on IP and, at the same time, directly influence IP.

The UK’s policy commitment to an 80% reduction in CO₂ levels over 1990 levels by 2050 has framed much recent research and debates between policy-makers and industry about whether and how a transition to a low-carbon future can be achieved. The technical potential for improved energy efficiency and installation of low- and zero-carbon generation technologies in the built environment is, in theory, large enough to achieve the emissions reduction targets in this economic sector but it requires a step-change in technology deployment, with less well studied implications for the industry actors who predominate in the existing markets for housing refurbishment. A socio-technical approach is taken to investigating this problem, drawing on the academic traditions of Actor-Network Theory and Transitions to frame the problem: how can a policy-driven change be brought about in a highly diffuse system of actors, where large outcomes emerge as the result of millions of small-scale decisions? Parallels are drawn with the history of Market Transformation policies that have achieved improved energy efficiency of stocks of electrical appliances over time. In order to explore how a Market Transformation approach might work in the rather different context of housing refurbishment, three key aspects of this particular socio-technical system need to be explored: the technical potential and workings of technology deployment; the operation of several implicated markets; the nature of innovation in the relevant industry sectors. A review of the practical, technical issues encountered in pioneering low-carbon refurbishment projects reveals certain risks of under-performance and unintended consequences of poor implementation. Managing these risks requires a level of underpinning knowledge as well as good-quality workmanship, raising the question of how such knowledge can best be introduced into the fragmented roles and contractual relationships that characterise the industry. The market opportunities for the work are complicated by the number and interdependence of the markets involved, including markets for property transactions and markets for refurbishment work and technology installation. Information systems already exist at the point of property transactions in the form of the Energy Performance Certificate, but the greatest potential for change exists in the mainstream repair, maintenance and improvement market. Interviews with mainstream SME construction managers explain the reasons why the industry’s custom and practice is essentially conservative, but also provide insights into the situations in which innovation can thrive, rather than being resisted or subverted. A proposal for systemic change has at its core the coordination of monitoring information and learning experiences from a range of innovative demonstration projects, with implications for change at an institutional level as well as within the practices of the industry itself. The findings of the research are discussed in terms of the strategic implications they hold for industry and policy-making.