Dual Organization in the Andes. The Problem and Research Methodology at San Luis Site, ZañaThis paper presents the preliminary results of archaeological research at San Luis Site, Zaña Valley, in the Peruvian north coast. The concept of dualism in the Central Andes is analyzed in the context of the associations and material distributions like ceramics, lithics and burned zones. This work will help to determine ritual activities in the study of analogous phenomena in other sites satisfactorily not yet defined. / Este trabajo presenta los resultados preliminares de investigaciones arqueológicas en el sitio monumental de San Luis, en el valle de Zaña. Basándose en las asociaciones y distribuciones de material, se analiza el concepto de dualismo manejado en los Andes Centrales. A partir del análisis de la distribución de cerámica, líticos y otros materiales así como zonas quemadas, este enfoque permite la interpretación de actividades rituales y ayudará en el estudio de fenómenos comparables que aún faltan en su precisión debida.

Este trabalho apresenta a análise neutrônica do combustível a dispersão de UMo-Al em relação ao aumento da densidade de urânio e faz uma comparação com o combustível de U3Si2-Al. Neste estudo, a densidade de urânio do U3Si2-Al é variada de 3,0 à 5,5 gU/cm3 e a do UMo-Al entre 4,0 à 7,5 gU/cm3 e com a porcentagem em massa de molibdênio com 7 e 10 %. Neste trabalho também é proposta a aplicação de veneno queimável metálico no cerne do combustível de UMo-Al, uma vez que este combustível é metálico e é analisada a utilização de gadolínio (Gd) e európio (Eu) como veneno queimável. A utilização do Gd como veneno queimável foi analisada com o fator de multiplicação infinito (k∞) através do programa celular HRC desenvolvido pelo IPEN e composto pelos códigos HAMMERTECHNION para a analise de célula, ROLAIDS para o cálculo de auto blindagem dos actinídeos e CINDER-2 empregado para a fissão e transmutação dos actinídeos. O núcleo do reator simulado foi similar ao do RMB (Reator Multipropósito Brasileiro) composto por um arranjo de 5x5 posições com 23 elementos combustíveis e dois blocos de alumínio. Para o európio, foram utilizados os programas SERPENT e CITATION. Os cálculos de queima foram realizados considerando uma potência de 30 MW durante três ciclos do RMB de 97 dias. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a porcentagem em massa do molibdênio têm uma grande influência no comportamento neutrônico devido a seção de choque de absorção do molibdênio ser considerável. Portanto, foi escolhida a porcentagem de 7 % de Mo para os estudos com veneno queimável. Para o núcleo proposto, o európio mostrou-se melhor, pois apresenta uma queima mais gradual que o gadolínio. Foi realizada uma simulação com o programa SERPENT com adição de 6 % de silício, o que mostrou que a adição de Si não causa mudança significativa no ciclo de operação do reator. Para validação da metodologia de cálculo, foi elaborada uma especificação técnica e fabricadas 12 miniplacas combustíveis de UMo-Al sem veneno queimável. As miniplacas foram irradiadas no núcleo do reator IPEN/MB-01, em quatro configurações de núcleo, para obtenção da reatividade inserida. Os resultados simulados obtidos para a inserção de reatividade pelas miniplacas nos diversos núcleos analisados apresentaram alta concordância com os resultados experimentais. / This work presents the neutronic analysis of the UMo-Al dispersion fuel concerning uranium density increase and shows comparisons relatively to the U3Si2-Al fuel. The U3Si2-Al uranium density varied from 3.0 to 5.5 gU/cm3 while that of UMo-Al fuel varied from 4.0 to 7.5 gU/cm3. The molybdenum mass content in the former case varies from 7 to 10 % in mass. Here, it is also proposed the utilization of burnable poison nuclides in the UMo-Al fuel meat. Since the fuel is metallic, gadolinium and europium were chosen as candidates to cope with this task. A recently developed cell code at IPEN (HRC) composed of the coupling of the codes HAMMER-TECHNION for the cell analysis, ROLAIDS for the actinide self-shielding calculations and CINDER-2 for the actinide and fission transmutation was employed for the neutronic analyses of UMo-Al. The simulated reactor core was similar to the one of RMB (Brazilian Multipurpose Reactor) composed of an array of 5x5 positions with 23 fuel elements and 2 aluminum blocks. A second analysis of the europium case employed the SERPENTE and CITATION codes. The burnup calculations were performed considering a power of 30 MW during three cycles of RMB 97 days. The analyses revealed that the molybdenum content has a great impact in the core reactivity due to its high absorption cross section. A value of 7 % was found adequate for the molybdenum mass content. The analyses also reveal that europium is a better burnable poison than gadolinium for the core cycle length and power level under consideration. It was realized a simulation with the computer code SERPENT with addition of 6 % silicon in UMo-Al fuel. The silicon does not change significantly the reactor operation cycle. To validate the calculation methodology it was developed a technical specification and fabricated 12 UMo-Al fuel miniplates without burnable poison. The miniplates were irradiated in the IPEN-MB/01 reactor core for four core configurations, in order to obtain the inserted reactivity. The simulated results for the reactivity insertion by the fuel miniplates in the analyzed cores showed high agreement with the experimental results.

nÃo hà / O controle da hansenÃase baseia-se no tratamento precoce dos doentes e na interrupÃÃo da cadeia de transmissÃo. Nos dias atuais, apresenta-se um novo desafio para este controle: a viabilidade de um esquema terapÃutico Ãnico para todas as formas clinicas da doenÃa, denominado multidrogaterapia uniforme (U-MDT), de curta duraÃÃo e eficaz, capaz de superar os seguintes problemas: erros na classificaÃÃo das formas clÃnicas, efeitos indesejÃveis dos fÃrmacos, abandono do tratamento e custos do mesmo. VÃrias doenÃas, tendo como exemplo principal a malÃria, apresentam diferenÃas na eficÃcia e efeitos indesejÃveis dos fÃrmacos, em funÃÃo dos diferentes agentes etiolÃgicos e formas clÃnicas. Isto se deve, entre outras possibilidades, a diferenÃas no metabolismo destes fÃrmacos. A hansenÃase, com formas clÃnicas espectrais e diferentes (indeterminada, tuberculÃide, bordeline tuberculÃide, bordeline bordeline, bordeline virchowiana e virchowiana), tambÃm apresenta, em funÃÃo destas, diferenÃas bacteriolÃgicas, histopatolÃgicas, imunolÃgicas e genÃticas. Neste sentido, possÃveis problemas a serem enfrentados pelo U-MDT seriam diferenÃas na eficÃcia terapÃutica e efeitos indesejÃveis dos fÃrmacos utilizados, conforme o espectro da doenÃa. Nesta tese, procuramos avaliar a incidÃncia dos efeitos indesejÃveis dos fÃrmacos dapsona, rifampicina e clofazimina, utilizados na terapÃutica da hansenÃase. Foram selecionados quarenta pacientes da forma tuberculÃide, dois quais 20 (vinte) fizeram uso do esquema padrÃo com dapsona e rifampicina e 20 (vinte) fizeram uso do esquema com dapsona, rifampicina e clofazimina, denominado U-MDT. TambÃm foram selecionados 20 (vinte) pacientes das formas clÃnicas bordeline virchowiana e virchowiana, os quais fizeram uso do esquema U-MDT. Todos os sujeitos receberam seis doses de tratamento. Em todos os pacientes tratados, nÃo evidenciamos efeitos indesejÃveis que levassem a interrupÃÃo do tratamento. Com exceÃÃo da anemia hemolÃtica, que se apresentou com incidÃncias elevadas em ambos os grupos de pacientes que fizeram uso do U-MDT os demais efeitos indesejÃveis apresentaram-se com baixas incidÃncias, compatÃveis com as evidencias cientÃficas, em todos os grupos de pacientes. NÃo evidenciamos diferenÃas nos achados da anemia hemolÃtica, bem como nos demais efeitos indesejÃveis, em funÃÃo das formas clinicas dos pacientes tuberculÃides (paucibacilares) e bordeline virchowianos ou virchowianos (multibacilares), que fizeram uso do esquema U-MDT. Tal dado sugere a inexistÃncia de influÃncias das formas clinicas da doenÃa nos efeitos indesejÃveis dos fÃrmacos. A verificaÃÃo de maiores incidÃncias de anemia hemolÃtica, atribuÃda à dapsona, nos grupos de pacientes tratados com U-MDT em relaÃÃo ao grupo de pacientes tratados com dapsona e rifampicina, parece sugerir alguma participaÃÃo da clofazimina na gÃnese de tal efeito indesejÃvel. / Leprosy control is based on early treatment of the patient and interruption of transmission. On current days, a new challenge for this control presents itself: the applicability of one single treatment regimen for all clinical forms of the disease, denominated Uniform Multidrug Therapy (U-MDT), an effective and short regimen, capable of overcoming the following issues: mistakes in the classification of clinical forms, drugs side effects, treatment abandon and its costs. Many diseases, malaria being the main example, present differences in effectiveness and side effects of drugs, according to the different pathological agents and clinical forms. This is due, amongst other possibilities, to differences in the metabolism of these drugs. Leprosy, with different and spectral clinical forms (indeterminate, tuberculoid, borderline tuberculoid, borderline borderline, borderline lepromatous, lepromatous), also presents, in function of those forms, bacteriological, histopathological, immunological and genetic differences. Possible issues to be faced by the U-MDT would be differences in the therapeutical effectiveness and pharmacological side effects, according to the spectrum of the disease. On this thesis, we try to evaluate the incidence of side effects of the drugs dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine, used in the treatment of leprosy. Forty patients of the tuberculoid form were selected, from which 20 (twenty) used the standard regimen with dapsone and rifampicin and 20 (twenty) used the regimen with dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine, denominated U-MDT. We also selected twenty patients of the borderline lepromatous and lepromatous forms, who used the U-MDT regimen. All patients received six doses of treatment. In all treated patients were not evidenced side effects that could lead to the interruption of treatment. With the exception of hemolytic anemia, which occurred in high incidence in both groups of patients that used the U-MDT regimen, other side effects were present in low incidence, compatible with the scientific evidences, in all groups of patients. There was no difference in the findings of hemolytic anemia, or other side effects, according to the clinical forms of the tuberculoid patients (paucibacillary) and borderline lepromatous or lepromatous (multibacillary) patients who used the U-MDT regimen. Such data suggests the inexistence of influence of the clinical forms of the disease on pharmacological side effects. The verification of highest incidence of hemolytic anemia, attributed to dapsone, in the groups of patients treated with U-MDT in comparison to the group of patients treated with dapsone and rifampicin, seems to suggest some role of clofazimin in the genesis of such side effect.

[pt] O presente trabalho aborda as determinações de idades de espeleotemas e corais, usando o método de desequilíbrio da série urânio, mais especificamente, o método de deficiência de filhos daughter deficient DD, em particular o método 230Th/234U. Foram testadas diferentes metodologias empregando separação por extração cromatográfica e quantificação por espectrometria alfa e ICP-MS. Foram testados três procedimentos diferentes: separação em batelada empregando-se colunas com Tri-octil óxido de fosfina (TOPO) em silica- gel e a coluna TRU comercializada pela Eichrom(R), composta de octil-N,N,- isobutil carbamoil óxido de fosfina dissolvido em fosfato de tributila (TBP) e quantificação por espectrometria alfa; separação em batelada com os mesmos sistemas mas quantificação por ICP-MS e separação em linha (flow injection) com cartuchos de TRU e quantificação por ICP-MS. As metodologias desenvolvidas foram validadas empregando-se amostras de referência certificada, IAEA-327 (solo) tendo sido obtidas incertezas de 2% para o método empregando a separação em linha (flow injection) com cartuchos de TRU e quantificação por ICP-MS. As amostras de espeleotema analisadas foram coletadas no Carste de Lagoa Santa, MG, pelo grupo do Prof. Luis Piló (USP) e suas idades variaram de 15,2±2,2 kanos a >350 kanos. Estes valores estão na faixa dos valores encontrados na literatura para amostras de espeleotema coletadas pelo mesmo grupo na mesma região. A amostra de coral, coletada na Bacia de Campos (RJ) era da espécie Lophelia pertusa, foi subdividida segundo suas ramificações (primária, secundária e terciária) e o ramo principal foi datado em 9,4 ± 0,3 kanos. / [en] This paper discusses the age determination of speleothems and corals using Uranium-series- imbalance method, more specifically the daughter deficient method - DD, particularly the 230Th/234U method. Different methodologies were tested using chromatographic extraction separation and quantification by alpha spectrometry and ICP-MS. Three different procedures were tested: batch separation using columns with Tri-N-Octylphosphine Oxide (TOPO) in silica gel and TRU column commercialized by Eichrom(R) composed of octyl-N,N,-isobutyl carbamoylphosphine oxide dissolved in tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) and with quantification by alpha spectrometry; batch separation with the same systems, but with quantification by ICP-MS; and flow injection with TRU cartridges and qualification by ICP-MS. The methodologies developed were verified using certified reference samples, IAEA-327 (soil) with 2% imprecision rate for the method using flow injection with TRU cartridges and qualification by ICP-MS. The speleothem samples analyzed were collected at Carste de Lagoa Santa, in the state of Minas Gerais, by Prof. Luis Piló`s (USP) group, and their ages varied from 15,2±2,2 kyears to >350 kyears. These numbers are within the range found in the literature for speleothem samples collected by the same group in the same region. The coral sample, collected at Bacia de Campos (RJ), and from the Lophelia pertusa species, was subdivided according to its ramifications (primary, secondary and tertiary), and the main ramification dated 9,4 ± 0,3 kyears.

The isotopes 238 U, 234 U and 230 Th, as members of the uranium-radium decay chain, are fractionated in the environment by changes of geochemical conditions, and they can be used for dating of recent or past geochemical processes in the Quaternary. Samples of water with uranium and of water-activated solids were taken of radioactive mineral water springs at two study sites in the area of Krkonoše-Jizera crystalline complex: Svatý Vojtěch (St. Adalbert) in Horní Malá Úpa, and Bukový Pramen in the Těsný důl valley in Janské Lázně. Uranium was co-precipitated in field conditions with hydroxides of FeIII+ in 50-liter water samples of the radioactive springs. In the lab, uranium and thorium were separated from water precipitates, as well as from solid samples after their chemical decomposition, using chromatographic extraction agent UTEVA. All the three isotopes of interest emit alpha particles, and so their activities were measured by alpha spectrometry and expressed as 234 U/238 U and 230 Th/234 U ratios. As an internal standard, 232 U/228 Th was used. The resulting 234 U/238 U activity ratios of four water samples measured ranged from 1.0747 to 1.423. In twelve samples of solid phases activity ratios 234 U/238 U from 0.861 to 1.129 were determined. The 230 Th/234 U activity ratios form two distinct...

Craton cores far from plate boundaries have traditionally been viewed as stable features that experience minimal vertical motion over 100-1000Ma time scales. Here we show that the Fennoscandian Shield in southeastern Sweden experienced several episodes of burial and exhumation from similar to 1800Ma to the present. Apatite, titanite, and zircon (U-Th)/He ages from surface samples and drill cores constrain the long-term, low-temperature history of the Laxemar region. Single grain titanite and zircon (U-Th)/He ages are negatively correlated (104-838Ma for zircon and 160-945Ma for titanite) with effective uranium (eU=U+0.235xTh), a measurement proportional to radiation damage. Apatite ages are 102-258Ma and are positively correlated with eU. These correlations are interpreted with damage-diffusivity models, and the modeled zircon He age-eU correlations constrain multiple episodes of heating and cooling from 1800Ma to the present, which we interpret in the context of foreland basin systems related to the Neoproterozoic Sveconorwegian and Paleozoic Caledonian orogens. Inverse time-temperature models constrain an average burial temperature of similar to 217 degrees C during the Sveconorwegian, achieved between 944Ma and 851Ma, and similar to 154 degrees C during the Caledonian, achieved between 366Ma and 224Ma. Subsequent cooling to near-surface temperatures in both cases could be related to long-term exhumation caused by either postorogenic collapse or mantle dynamics related to the final assembly of Rodinia and Pangaea. Our titanite He age-eU correlations cannot currently be interpreted in the same fashion; however, this study represents one of the first examples of a damage-diffusivity relationship in this system, which deserves further research attention.

Radionuclides from natural U-series in sediments from two river catchments in the UK have been studied. The aim was to gain insight into the behaviour of 238U, 234U, 230Th and 226Ra in real natural systems enriched in uranium. A radiochemical method for radium separation followed by alpha spectrometric measurement has been developed. The method allowed use of 225Ra, in equilibrium with the parent 229Th, as a yield determinant, and has been applied in 226Ra concentrations measurements in the selected areas of study.U-series progeny, 238U, 234U, 230Th and 226Ra, in totally dissolved sediments from the valley of the River Noe and the fraction leached by aqua regia, have been measured. Total sediment contents ranged from 9 ± 2 to 184 ± 8 Bq.kg-1 for uranium, 9 ± 3 to 200 ± 13 Bq.kg-1 for thorium and 18 ± 1 to 179 ± 8 Bq.kg-1 for radium. The activity concentrations in the leached fractions, compared with the total, were 46% for uranium, 54% for thorium and 56% for radium, on average. The radionuclides showed extensive disequilibrium and this suggested a complex leaching/accumulation of uranium as well as an impact of organic matter and secondary minerals.Uranium and radium have been geochemically characterised in sediments from near the South Terras abandoned uranium mine, Cornwall. Background activity concentration levels of uranium in sediments ranged from 13 ± 3 to 290 ± 14 Bq.kg-1, with radium from 42 ± 4 to 424 ± 23 Bq.kg-1. Elevated concentrations of uranium and radium were measured in two samples, S3 with 1820 ± 36 Bq.kg-1 for uranium and 940 ± 53 Bq.kg-1 for radium; and S7 with 4350 ± 53 Bq.kg-1 for uranium and 1765 ± 48 Bq.kg-1 for radium. Sequential chemical extraction for the two samples revealed that both uranium and radium were associated with organic and carbonate fractions, with 25 % of the uranium in the resistant phase of S7. 234U/238U activity ratios of the sequential extraction fractions showed different trends in the sediments, and this was linked to the impact of organic matter and/or exchange between water and sediment. Uranium-bearing minerals in association with potassium, calcium, iron, manganese and arsenic have been identified in these sediments.

This thesis studies the historic encounter between United States Navy airship K-74 and Nazi submarine U-134 in World War II. The Battle of the Atlantic is examined through case study of this one U-boat and its voyage. In all things except her fight with the American blimp, the patrol was perfectly typical. Looked at from start to finish, both her reports and the reports of the Allies encountered, many realities of the war can be studied. U-134 sailed to attack shipping between Florida and Cuba. She was challenged by the attack of United States Navy airship K-74 over the Florida Straits. It is the only documented instance of battle between two such combatants in history. That merits attention. Thesis finding disprove historian William Eliot Morison’s contention that the K-74 airship bombs were not dropped and did not damage the U-boat. Study of this U-boat and its antagonist broadens our understanding of the Battle of the Atlantic. It is a contribution to our knowledge of military, naval, aviation, and local history.

O problema de seleção de características, no contexto de Reconhecimento de Padrões, consiste na escolha de um subconjunto X de um conjunto S de características, de tal forma que X seja \"ótimo\" dentro de algum critério. Supondo a escolha de uma função custo c apropriada, o problema de seleção de características é reduzido a um problema de busca que utiliza c para avaliar os subconjuntos de S e assim detectar um subconjunto de características ótimo. Todavia, o problema de seleção de características é NP-difícil. Na literatura existem diversos algoritmos e heurísticas propostos para abordar este problema; porém, quase nenhuma dessas técnicas explora o fato que existem funções custo cujos valores são estimados a partir de uma amostra e que descrevem uma \"curva em U\" nas cadeias do reticulado Booleano (P(S),<=), um fenômeno bem conhecido em Reconhecimento de Padrões: conforme aumenta-se o número de características consideradas, há uma queda no custo do subconjunto avaliado, até o ponto em que a limitação no número de amostras faz com que seguir adicionando características passe a aumentar o custo, devido ao aumento no erro de estimação. Em 2010, Ris e colegas propuseram um novo algoritmo para resolver esse caso particular do problema de seleção de características, que aproveita o fato de que o espaço de busca pode ser organizado como um reticulado Booleano, assim como a estrutura de curvas em U das cadeias do reticulado, para encontrar um subconjunto ótimo. Neste trabalho estudamos a estrutura do problema de minimização de funções custo cujas cadeias são decomponíveis em curvas em U (problema U-curve), provando que o mesmo é NP-difícil. Mostramos que o algoritmo de Ris e colegas possui um erro que o torna de fato sub-ótimo, e propusemos uma versão corrigida e melhorada do mesmo, o algoritmo U-Curve-Search (UCS). Apresentamos também duas variações do algoritmo UCS que controlam o espaço de busca de forma mais sistemática. Introduzimos dois novos algoritmos branch-and-bound para abordar o problema, chamados U-Curve-Branch-and-Bound (UBB) e Poset-Forest-Search (PFS). Para todos os algoritmos apresentados nesta tese, fornecemos análise de complexidade de tempo e, para alguns deles, também prova de corretude. Implementamos todos os algoritmos apresentados utilizando o arcabouço featsel, também desenvolvido neste trabalho; realizamos experimentos ótimos e sub-ótimos com instâncias de dados reais e simulados e analisamos os resultados obtidos. Por fim, propusemos um relaxamento do problema U-curve que modela alguns tipos de projeto de classificadores; também provamos que os algoritmos UCS, UBB e PFS resolvem esta versão generalizada do problema. / The feature selection problem, in the context of Pattern Recognition, consists in the choice of a subset X of a set S of features, such that X is \"optimal\" under some criterion. If we assume the choice of a proper cost function c, then the feature selection problem is reduced to a search problem, which uses c to evaluate the subsets of S, therefore finding an optimal feature subset. However, the feature selection problem is NP-hard. Although there are a myriad of algorithms and heuristics to tackle this problem in the literature, almost none of those techniques explores the fact that there are cost functions whose values are estimated from a sample and describe a \"U-shaped curve\" in the chains of the Boolean lattice o (P(S),<=), a well-known phenomenon in Pattern Recognition: for a fixed number of samples, the increase in the number of considered features may have two consequences: if the available sample is enough to a good estimation, then it should occur a reduction of the estimation error, otherwise, the lack of data induces an increase of the estimation error. In 2010, Ris et al. proposed a new algorithm to solve this particular case of the feature selection problem: their algorithm takes into account the fact that the search space may be organized as a Boolean lattice, as well as that the chains of this lattice describe a U-shaped curve, to find an optimal feature subset. In this work, we studied the structure of the minimization problem of cost functions whose chains are decomposable in U-shaped curves (the U-curve problem), and proved that this problem is actually NP-hard. We showed that the algorithm introduced by Ris et al. has an error that leads to suboptimal solutions, and proposed a corrected and improved version, the U-Curve-Search (UCS) algorithm. Moreover, to manage the search space in a more systematic way, we also presented two modifications of the UCS algorithm. We introduced two new branch-and-bound algorithms to tackle the U-curve problem, namely U-Curve-Branch-and-Bound (UBB) and Poset-Forest-Search (PFS). For each algorithm presented in this thesis, we provided time complexity analysis and, for some of them, also proof of correctness. We implemented each algorithm through the featsel framework, which was also developed in this work; we performed optimal and suboptimal experiments with instances from real and simulated data, and analyzed the results. Finally, we proposed a generalization of the U-curve problem that models some kinds of classifier design; we proved the correctness of the UCS, UBB, and PFS algorithms for this generalized version of the U-curve problem.

Detta examensarbete har genomförts i samarbete med Värmex AB där vi har haft Anders Ericsson som handledare, och Peter Hansson (Sweco) som handledare från skolan, Kungliga tekniska högskolan i Haninge. Idag är energianvändningen i flerbostadshus en stor fråga att ta itu med, och för varje byggnadsprojekt skall en energideklaration som visar mängd köpt energi göras. Vi strävar idag efter att minska energianvändningen i flerbostadshus med 50 % till 2050. I denna analys beskriver vi vilka åtgärder man kan ta an för att minska just energianvändningen i ett specifikt flerbostadshus belägen i kommunen Nacka i Stockholm. Då denna byggnad stått från år 1949 utan större underhållning har det visat sig att byggnaden står över BBRs krav gällande energianvändning (90 kWh/m2), och stor anledning är klimatskalet. Källor visar även att delar av klimatskalet så som fasad etc. bör ändras inom 30 år efter det att det byggts, vilket inte har gjorts. Vi har genom en programvara, VIP-Energy valt att utföra denna analys. Med hjälp av offentliga handlingar från stadsbyggnadskontoret så som plan – sektion – fasadritningar har vi mätt nödvändiga mått som vi knappat in i programmet. Även information som byggnadsmaterial, läge på byggnaden och uppvärmningssystem har varit nödvändiga. Jämförelse mot BBRs krav har gjorts automatiskt i programmet och det är sådan slags information vi utgått ifrån.  Då vi i denna analys valt att fokusera på klimatskal där tak, golv, väggar, fönster och dörrar ingår visar resultatet att lägre u-värden på byggnadsdelar bidrar till lägre energianvändning. Studier visar att ca 35 % av värmeförlusterna är via fönster, och detta överensstämmer med byggnaden som denna analys är baserad på. Som lösning till detta har vi valt att byta fönster till 2-glas fönster med isolleruta vilket har betydligt lägre u-värde än de vi har idag. Vi vill även förbättra karmen och fogen kring fönstren för att minska transmissionsförlusterna och eventuella drag i bostäderna, vilket i sin tur leder till bättre komfort och skönare atmosfär. Detsamma gäller yterdörrarna som behöver bytas för att hålla värmen inne. Utvändig isolering i ytterväggen bidrar även med förbättringar kring u-värde och energianvändning. Originalhuset visade att byggnadens genomsnittliga U-värde ligger på 0,656W/m2K och energianvändningen ligger på 96 kWh/m2 per år. Enligt BBRs krav för äldre byggnader ska u-värdet ligga på 0,400W/m2K och energianvändningen på 90kWh/m2 per år. Energibalansberäkningen visar nya värden på byggnaden, vilket är totala u-värde på 0,409 W/m2K samt energianvändningen på 64 kWh/m2. / This degree project has been written in collaboration with Värmex AB, with the generous help of Anders Ericsson as our fellow adviser and Peter Hansson (Sweco) our mentor from the Royal institute of technology located in Haninge.   Today we find questions pertaining to energy consumption in apartment blocks of real significance; with each building project a declaration that shows the amount of energy consumed is of outmost importance. We strive to reduce energy consumption in apartment blocks by 50 % until year 2050. In this degree thesis, we aim to describe measures and solutions to lower the consumption of energy in a specific apartment block located in Nacka, Stockholm.   This building has been standing quite untouched and unmarked since 1949, yet it is still in compliance with the demands stated by BBR concerning energy efficiency, in large because of its climate shell. Sources show that greater parts of its outer shell for example the front, should have been repaired during the first 30 years, and the matter is still to be solved. The use of a computer software VIP-Energy has enabled us to state a hypothesis. With the help of public documents from Housing And Urban Development Town Building Office (HUD) giving us an overview of the different dimensions of the building, we've been able to plot all this data into the software. Information such as building materials, location, heating systems have also been necessary in our analysis. Results are automatically compared to the demands required by BBR. It is through experimentation of this data that we have been successful in collecting our results.  In the analysis, we chose to focus on the climate shell that constitutes: roof, floors, walls, windows and doors. Our results show that lower U-values conduce better energy efficiency. Studies show that almost 35 % of energy loss in a building is caused by the windows of the building, this this is consistent with the building which this analysis is based on. We have solved this by changing sheet glass that is energy efficient. We also aim to change the frame and seams surrounding the windows, in order to lower transmission losses and possible draughts in the apartments. This will result in hopefully a higher degree of comfort and refreshing atmosphere. The same changes apply to entry doors in order to keep energy loss to a minimum. Also an external insulation in the outer wall contributes to improvements on u-value and use.  The original building shows an average U-value of 0,656W/m2K and the energy consumption is 96 kWh/m2 per year. According to BBR, older buildings should have a U-value of 0,400W/m2K and an energy consumption of 90kWh/m2 per year. Energy balance calculation show new values for the building were the u -value should be set to 0,409W/m2K, and energy consumption should be set to 64kWh/m2.