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[pt] Os semicondutores à base de TiO2 atualmente em desenvolvimento na área de fotodegradação de poluentes apresentam limitações para viabilização comercial. Os desafios encontrados são, i) tornar mais eficiente a absorção de luz na faixa visível para fotogeração dos pares elétrons livres e buracos, ii) elevação da área superficial e iii) redução da taxa de recombinação elétrons livres-buracos. Este estudo focou na síntese e caracterização de um novo nanohíbrido, sensível a luz visível à base de nanofolhas de ferrititanato esfoliadas e de nanopartículas de TiO2 (anatásio) conjugadas com acetilacetona (ACAC), controlando a razão molar de titânio nos dois componentes, além de abordar diferentes rotas de síntese do nanohíbrido e estudar os componentes separadamente. Os nanohíbridos foram sintetizados pelas rotas de mistura física e de química branda sendo nomeados como MF e HM-1 respectivamente, considerando as razões molares de [Ti]anatásio/[Ti]ferrititanato de 10, 5 e 2. Todos os nanohíbridos apresentaram elevada área superficial (superior a 100 m2/g) e restauração parcial da estrutura pilarizada. Os nanohíbridos com maior razão molar de [Ti]anátasio/[Ti]ferrititanato apresentaram maior eficiência de foto-oxidação dos gases poluentes NOx, bem como a MF apresentou maior eficiência que a HM-1. O nanohíbrido com melhor desempenho, a MF de razão 10, obteve uma conversão após 5 min de aproximadamente 80 por cento e apresentou redução gradativa de conversão até 25 por cento após 2h. Contudo, o componente isolado TiO2-ACAC calcinado a 300 graus C promoveu a sensibilização do anatásio em todo o espectro visível, tendo área superficial de 137 m2/g e uma conversão do NOx superior a 95 por cento, com redução gradativa da conversão até 38,5 por cento após 2h. Os resultados do anatásio modificado podem ser compreendidos pela combinação da estrutura nanométrica, da elevada área superficial e, principalmente, pela presença de ligações de titânia com acetilacetona superficiais em monocamadas maximizando e estabilizando a fotogeração de pares elétrons/buracos. Enquanto odesempenho inferior dos nanohíbridos pode ser atribuído a presença devacâncias de oxigênio e íons de Fe3+ atuando como centros de recombinação reduzindo a formação de radicais oxidantes. / [en] Currently, the development of TiO2-based semiconductors carry out drawback at photocatalytic commercial applications for photodegradation of pollutants gases. The photocatalytic limitations are i) inefficient absorption of visible light that inhibits the photogeneration of free electron and hole pairs, ii) small surface area and iii) high rate of electron to hole recombination. The aim of this study was the synthesis and characterization of a new visible light sensitive nanohybrids based on ferrititanate exfoliated nanosheets and a charge transfer complex (TiO2-ACAC) by controlling the [Ti] anatase/[Ti] ferrititanate molar ratio and applying two different synthesis route. Besides, it was studied the individual components. The nanohybrids were synthesized through physical mixture route and soft chemical route, named respectively as MF and HM-1. The molar ratios used in this work were 10, 5 and 2. All of the heterostructures presented high surface area (higher than 100m2/g) and partial restacking of lamellar structure. The nanohybrids with higher molar ratio and synthesized through physical mixture showed the greatest photocatalytic activity with more efficient photo-oxidation of gas NOx than the nanohybrids synthesized through soft chemical route. The nanohybrid with better performance, the MF with ratio 10, obtained a NO conversion of approximately 80 percent after 5min and gradual reduction of conversion to 25 percent after 2h. Nevertheless, the TiO2-ACAC nanoparticles component calcined at 300 C degrees presented total sensitivity at the range of visible light, surface area of 137m2/g and conversion higher than 95 percent with partial photocatalytic deactivation to 38.5 percent after 2h. The results of TiO2-ACAC system studied can be described due to its nanometric structure, high surface area and, mainly, for the presence of strongly interacting between acetylacetone with Ti ions from anatase surface, while maximized and stabilized the photogeneration of electron-hole pairs and reactive oxidizing species (ROS), .O2 -. However, the lower performance of the nanohybrids ascribed to the oxygen vacancies and Fe3+ ions that acting as electron trapping center reducing the formation of ROS.

Today’s society strives to eliminate the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which is the main greenhouse gas emitted through anthropogenic activities and contributes to climate change. In this project utilization of CO2 emissions from waste to energy plants to carbohydrates via photocatalytic reduction with water and further carbon coupling reactions is investigated. Two routes for the synthesis of carbohydrates have been investigated. Both methods use photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to methanol and then proceed via different steps to produce carbohydrates or their precursors. The first route uses aldol condensation as the main method for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds and the second route is based on the formose reaction that uses formaldehyde as a reactant. The waste incineration plant selected for this study was the one located in Kil, Sweden. This plant processes 15590 tons of waste per year and emits 16366.5 tons of carbon dioxide per year. In order to separate carbon dioxide from the flue gas stream, MEA absorption was chosen as the best option due to its high efficiency. The presented processes have negative carbon dioxide emissions due to the fact that they convert of 16.4% of the waste incineration CO2 emissions into useful products and do not generate any emissions of their own. The aldol condensation pathway exhibits an efficiency of 1.3% when considering only food industry products and 2.5% when including other products that are useful to manufacture solvents, lubricants, or pharmaceuticals. The total amount of food industry products obtained is 3.9 kg/h with the energy requirements being was 159550 kJ/kgproduct. The formose reaction route yields 15.4 kg/h of only food industry products, mainly glucose, and exhibits an efficiency of 5%. The power requirements equal to 90099 kJ/kgproduct. The formose route was found to have higher yield and efficiency, and to be more energy consuming but also more energy efficient. Economic data was difficult to find due to the fact that photocatalytic processes are not commercial yet. / Dagens samhälle strävar efter att eliminera koldioxidutsläppen (CO2), som är den viktigaste växthusgasen som släpps ut genom antropogena aktiviteter och påverkar klimat. Den här projekten undersöker användning av koldioxidutsläpp från avfall till energianläggningar till produktion av kolhydrater via fotokatalytisk reduktion med vatten och ytterligare kolkopplingsreaktioner. Projekten utforskar två vägar för syntes av kolhydrater. Båda metoderna använda fotokatalytisk reduktion av koldioxid till metanol. Kolhydrater eller deras ursprungsmaterial syntetiseras via olika steg nedströms den fotokatalitiska processen. Den första vägen använder aldolkondensation som huvudmetod av kol-kolbindningar och den andra vägen baseras på formosreaktionen som använder formaldehyd som reaktant. Den avfallsförbränningsanläggning som valts ut för denna studie var den i Kil, Värmland, Sverige. Denna anläggning behandlar 15590 ton avfall per år och släpper ut 16366,5 ton koldioxid per år. För att separera koldioxid från rökgasströmmen valdes MEA-absorption som det bästa alternativet på grund av dess höga effektivitet. De presenterade processerna har negativa koldioxidutsläpp på grund av att de omvandlar 16,4% av koldioxid från avfallsförbränning till användbara produkter och inte genererar  egna utsläpp. Aldolkondensationsvägen uppvisar en effektivitet på 1,3% om man endast beaktar livsmedelsindustrins produkter och 2,5% om man gör andra produkter som är användbara för att tillverka lösningsmedel, smörjmedel eller läkemedel. Den totala mängden av livsmedelsprodukter är 3,9 kg / h och energibehovet är lika med 159550 kJ / kg produkt. Formosreaktionsvägen ger 15,4 kg / h av livsmedelsindustrin produkt, huvudsakligen glukos, och uppvisar en effektivitet på 5%. Effektkraven är lika med 90099 kJ / kg produkt. Formosvägen visade sig ha högre utbyte och effektivitet och vara mer energikrävande men också mer energieffektiv. Ekonomiska data var svåra att hitta på grund av att fotokatalytiska processorn ännu inte är kommersiell.

The development of efficient solar energy conversion devices has attracted much attention. Despite the fact that progress have been achieved, a fundamental understanding examining why efficiency can be improved remains elusive. For example, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) exhibit high conversion efficiency when acetonitrile is used to prepare both the working electrode and the electrolyte. However, the mechanism explaining exactly how solvent influences device performance has not yet been systematically investigated. Another prominent example is the metal/semiconductor heterojunction systems. While it has been demonstrated that such mixed systems can significantly improve solar conversion efficiency, the mechanism of the electron dynamics driving these systems remains controversial. This stems in part from the fact that the experimentally deduced time constants, which are characteristic of such systems, are only ever extracted from phenomenological models and therefore cannot be assigned to specific physical processes. Ultimately, the development of a physical model is necessary to obtain an unambiguous physical picture of the solar conversion process. In this dissertation, the ultrafast nonlinear spectroscopic methods, second harmonic light scattering (SHS) and transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy, have been employed to study dye molecular adsorption and charge transfer dynamics in several solar energy conversion systems, including 1) DSSC, where solvent effects are investigated to understand why acetonitrile is the most effective solvent; 2) Ag/TiO2 heterostructure system, where a physical model is proposed to quantitively analyze the electron dynamics; 3) porphyrin/Ag/TiO2 nanocomposite, where we found there is no electron injection from porphyrin to TiO2 and plasmonic metal can enhance the porphyrin dye adsorption to improve the device efficiency. The propensity for surface adsorption of two related dyes, ortho-ethyl red (o-ER) and para-ethyl red (p-ER), onto TiO2 particles is studied with SHS. While p-ER readily adsorbs onto TiO2, o-ER does not. It is suggested that this difference is linked to the effects of the steric hindrance of the adsorbate. The influence of the solvent on the adsorption of p-ER onto TiO2 is also investigated. Of significance, p-ER can only chemically bond to the TiO2 surface in aprotic solvents, where adsorption free energy scales with solvent polarity. For protic solvents, preferential adsorption of the solvent shell ultimately prevents direct adsorption of p-ER onto the surface of TiO2. Likewise, solvent effects on charge transfer from p-ER to TiO2 are studied by TA. The electron injection rate is shown to be positively related to solvent polarity. Overall, highly polar aprotic solvents are shown to facilitate dye adsorption and electron injection, which helps improve the efficiency of DSSC devices. Ultrafast dynamics of plasmon-induced hot electrons from Ag to TiO2 nanorods are probed by TA. The observed transient signal, which corresponds to the lifetime of the optically generated electrons, is analyzed using a physical model including electron injection, relaxation, band edge annihilation, the surface to bulk diffusion, and back diffusion from the bulk to the surface. A ca. 13 fs electron injection time is deduced for Ag to TiO2, which is faster than that generated in Au and dyes. Additionally, the excited state exciton dynamics of a porphyrin J-aggregate are investigated and subsequently modeled. More rapid dynamics are found following aggregation of the porphyrin, which can be attributed to the inclusion of more efficient relaxation channels. However, no electron injection from the J-aggregate to TiO2 is observed. This likely stems from the negatively charged repulsion between the two components. Further, when the J-aggregate is introduced into an Ag/TiO2 system, optical excitation occurs predominantly in the J-aggregate. This stems either from direct excitation of the J-aggregate or indirect excitation through plasmon-induced resonant energy transfer from Ag. Our results indicate that plasmon can enhance the dye adsorption, which has great potential for designing more efficient plasmonic DSSC devices. / Chemistry

The goal of this research was to develop a series of mixed-metal supramolecular complexes with specialized light absorbing units to probe perturbation of excited-state properties by ligand deuteration and long-term complex stability via racemization of initially enantiopure light absorbing subunits. Varying bidentate polypyridyl terminal ligands (TL), bridging ligands (BL), reactive metal center (RM), or number of Ru(II) light absorbers (LA) tunes the electrochemical, spectroscopic, photophysical, and photochemical properties within the supramolecular architecture. Ru(II) monometallics of the design [(bpy)2Ru(prolinate)](PF6) utilize prolinate as a chiral directing ligand to impart chirality to the Ru(II) LAs in the synthesis of more sophisticated supramolecular complexes. Ru(II) monometallics of the design [(TL)2Ru(BL)](PF6)2 (TL = bpy or d8-bpy; BL = dpp or d10-dpp; bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine; dpp = 2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine) covalently couple two TLs and one BL to a central Ru(II) metal center forming a LA subunit. Larger bi- and trimetallic complexes are formed by coupling an additional Ru(II), Rh(III), or Pt(II) metal center to an existing Ru(II) LA through a BL. Ru(II),Ru(II), Ru(II),Rh(III), and Ru(II),Pt(II) bimetallics of the design [(TL)2Ru(BL)Ru(TL)2](PF6)4, [(TL)2Ru(BL)RhCl2(TL′)](PF6)3, and [(TL)2Ru(BL)PtCl2](PF6)2 (TL/TL′ = bpy or d8-bpy; BL = dpp or d10-dpp) couple only one Ru(II) LA to a Ru(II), Rh(III), or Pt(II) metal center through the BL. Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) trimetallics of the design [{(TL)2Ru(BL)}2RhCl2](PF6)5 (TL = bpy or d8-bpy; BL = dpp or d10-dpp) covalently couple two Ru(II) LAs to a central Rh(III) RM through polyazine BLs. The complexes discussed herein are synthesized using a building block approach, permitting modification of the supramolecular architecture through multiple synthetic steps. Electrochemical analysis of the mono-, bi-, and trimetallic complexes displays several common features: a Ru-based HOMO and either a bridging ligand or Rh-based LUMO. TL and BL modification by ligand deuteration does not affect the electrochemistry of the Ru(II), Ru(II),Ru(II), Ru(II),Rh(III), or Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes. Likewise, utilizing a single enantiomer of the LA subunit does not modify the redox behavior of Ru(II), Ru(II),Pt(II), or Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes. All of the mono-, bi-, and trimetallic complexes are efficient light absorbers throughout the UV and visible with π→π* intraligand (IL) transitions in the UV and Ru(dπ)→ligand(π*) metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transitions in the visible. Ligand deuteration does not affect the light absorbing properties of the complexes, while incorporation of chiral LA subunits imparts a preference for circularly polarized light (CPL) absorbance into supramolecular complexes. Photoexcitation of the Ru(dπ)→dpp(π*) 1MLCT results in near unity population of short-lived, weakly emissive Ru(dπ)→dpp(π*) ³MLCT excited state. In the Ru(II), Ru(II),Ru(II), and Ru(II),Pt(II) complexes, the 3MLCT excited state relaxes to the ground state by emission of a photon or vibrational relaxation processes. In the Ru(II),Rh(III) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes, the 3MLCT excited state is efficiently quenched by intramolecular electron transfer to populate a non-emissive Ru(dπ)→'Rh(dσ*) metal-to-metal charge transfer (3MMCT) excited state. Utilizing a deuterated BL, the excited-state lifetimes and quantum yield of emission (Φem) are increased for Ru(II), Ru(II),Ru(II), Ru(II),Rh(III) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes. The Ru(II),Rh(III) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes have previously been shown to be exceptional photochemical molecular devices (PMD) for photoinitiated electron collection (PEC). The ability of these complexes to undergo multiple redox cycles, efficiently absorb light, populate reactive excited states, and collect electrons at a reactive Rh metal center fulfills the requirements for H2O reduction photocatalysts. Photolysis of the Ru(II),Rh(III) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes with 470 nm light in the presence of a sacrificial electron donor and H2O substrate yields photocatalytic H2 production. Varying the BL from dpp to d10-dpp in the bimetallic architecture results in enhanced, although relatively low, catalyst efficiency producing 40 ± 10 μL H2 with dpp and 80 ± 10 μL H2 with d10-dpp in a CH3CN solvent system after 48 h photolysis. The trimetallic architecture showed no enhancement in photocatalytic efficiency and produced 210 ± 20 μL H2 with dpp and 180 ± 20 μL H2 with d10-dpp in a DMF solvent system after 20 h photolysis. The Ru(II),Rh(III) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) complexes' behavior differs in that the excited state lifetime is the most important factor for bimetallic catalyst functioning, but intramolecular electron transfer is the most important factor for the trimetallic photocatalysts. Another important property to understand with these catalysts is their long-term stability in solution. In order for these mixed-metal complexes to be industrially useful, they must perform for long periods of time without degradation in the presence of H2O substrate and electron donors in solution. Previous examinations of Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) photocatalysts have found that they can perform for ca. 50 h of photolysis, but are not as effective as the initial few hours. Special care was taken to synthesize enantiopure LA subunits and incorporate them into Ru(II),Pt(II) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) architectures to study their photolytic stability by monitoring how long the complexes retained their chirality using electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectroscopy. After photolyzing for longer than 200 hours with an LED light source, the quantum yield for racemization (Φrac) for the Ru(II),Pt(II) and Ru(II),Rh(III),Ru(II) architectures is 2.6 ⨉ 10⁻⁸ and 0.72 ⨉ 10⁻⁸ respectively. Also, by photolyzing in the presence of free bpy, the bi- and trimetallic complexes racemize via a non-dissociative trigonal twist mechanism. This dissertation reports the detailed analysis of the electrochemical, spectroscopic, photophysical, and photochemical properties of a series of selectively deuterated [(TL)2Ru(BL)](PF6)2, [(TL)2Ru(BL)Ru(TL)2](PF6)4, [(TL)2Ru(BL)RhCl2(TL′)](PF6)3, and [{(TL)2Ru(BL)}2RhCl2](PF6)5 (TL = bpy or d8-bpy; BL = dpp or d10-dpp; bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine; dpp = 2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine) supramolecular complexes and a series of [(bpy)2Ru(prolinate)](PF6), [(bpy)2Ru(dpp)](PF6)2, [(bpy)2Ru(dpp)PtCl2](PF6)2, and [{(bpy)2Ru(dpp)}2RhCl2](PF6)5 supramolecular complexes with enantiopure light absorbing subunits. The design of the supramolecular architecture and intrinsic properties of each subunit contribute to the function of these systems. The careful design, synthesis and purification, thorough characterizations, and experimentation have led to deeper understanding of the molecular properties required for efficient H2O reduction. / Ph. D.

[ES] La situación energética y medioambiental actual requiere de un cambio de paradigma energético, sustituyendo las fuentes de energía primarias basadas en combustibles fósiles (carbón, petróleo y gas natural) por otras más limpias y renovables. Dentro de este cambio, la fotocatálisis, simulando a la fotosíntesis natural, surge como una alternativa para la producción de combustibles a partir de la molécula de CO2. Los hidróxidos dobles laminares (LDH) son una familia de materiales con propiedades prometedoras para su aplicación en el campo de la fotocatálisis, dada la posibilidad de modular su composición química y morfología dependiendo del método de síntesis. En concreto, los hidróxidos dobles laminares que contienen Ti en su estructura (un elemento bien conocido por el uso del TiO2 en fotocatálisis) pueden tener aplicación en este campo, aunque debido a la dificultad de incorporación de un metal tetravalente en la estructura LDH, no han sido muy estudiados. En este contexto, la presente Tesis Doctoral ha probado la aplicabilidad de estos LDH conteniendo Ti en su composición en procesos de transformación fotocatalítica de la molécula de CO2 para dar lugar a combustibles solares y otras moléculas de interés para la industria. Además, se han estudiado los beneficios de la incorporación de un número elevado de elementos metálicos en un mismo material LDH (hasta siete en el caso de la presente Tesis) en la actividad fotocatalítica de dicho material. / [CA] La situació energètica i mediambiental actual requereix d'un canvi de paradigma energètic, substituint les fonts d'energia primàries basades en combustibles fòssils (carbó, petroli i gas natural) per altres més netes i renovables. Dins d'este canvi, la fotocatàlisis, simulant a la fotosíntesi natural, sorgeix com una alternativa per a la producció de combustibles a partir de la molècula de CO2. Els hidròxids dobles laminars (LDH) són una família de materials amb propietats prometedores per a la seua aplicació en el camp de la fotocatàlisis, donada la possibilitat de modular la seua composició química i morfologia depenent del mètode de síntesi. En concret, els hidròxids dobles laminars que contenen Ti en la seua estructura (un element ben conegut per l'ús del TiO2 en fotocatàlisis) poden tindre aplicació en este camp, encara que a causa de la dificultat d'incorporació d'un metall tetravalent en l'estructura LDH, no han sigut molt estudiats. En este context, la present Tesi Doctoral ha provat l'aplicabilitat d'estos LDH, contenint Ti en la seua composició, en processos de transformació fotocatalítica de la molècula de CO2 per a donar lloc a combustibles solars i altres molècules d'interès per a la indústria. A més, s'han estudiat els beneficis de la incorporació d'un nombre elevat d'elements metàl·lics en un mateix material LDH (fins a set en el cas de la present Tesi) en l'activitat fotocatalítica d'este material. / [EN] The current energy and environmental problematics call for a shift in the energy paradigm, replacing primary energy sources based on fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) with cleaner and renewable alternatives. Within this transition, photocatalysis, mimicking natural photosynthesis, emerges as an alternative for fuel production from CO2 molecules. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) constitute a family of materials with promising properties for application in the field of photocatalysis, given the ability to modulate their chemical composition and morphology depending on the synthesis method. Specifically, LDHs containing Ti in their structure (a well-known element for the TiO2 usage in photocatalysis) may find application in this field, although the incorporation of a tetravalent metal into the LDH structure has been less explored due to its difficulty. In this context, the present Doctoral Thesis has demonstrated the applicability of these Ti-containing LDHs in photocatalytic transformation processes of CO2 molecules to produce solar fuels and other molecules of interest for the industry. Additionally, the Thesis has explored the benefits of incorporating a high number of metallic elements into a single LDH material (up to seven in this case) on the photocatalytic activity of the resulting material. / Molina Muriel, M. (2024). Preparación de materiales basados en hidróxidos dobles laminares como fotocatalizadores [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/203889

The potentially most important challenges today are related to energy and the environment. New materials and methods are needed in order to, in a sustainable way, convert and store energy, reduce pollution, and clean the air and water from contaminations. In this, nanomaterials and nanocomposites play a key role, and hence knowledge about the relation between synthesis, structure, and properties of nanosystems is paramount. This thesis demonstrates that solution-chemical synthesis, using amine-modified acetates and nitrates, can be used to prepare widely different nanostructured films. By adjusting the synthesis parameters, metals, oxides, and metal–oxide or oxide–oxide nanocomposites were prepared for two systems based on Co and Zn:Fe, respectively, and the films were characterised using diffraction, spectroscopy, and microscopy techniques, and SQUID magnetometry. A variety of crystalline cobalt films—Co metal, CoO, Co3O4, and composites with different metal:oxide ratios—were synthesised. Heat-treatment parameters and control of the film thickness enabled tuning of the phase ratios. Random and layered Co–CoO composites were prepared by utilising different heating rates and gas flow rates together with a morphology effect associated with the furnace tube. The Co–CoO films exhibited exchange bias due to the ferromagnetic–antiferromagnetic interaction between the Co and CoO, whereas variations in e.g. coercivity and exchange bias field were attributed to differences in the structure and phase distribution. Ordered structures of wurtzite ZnO surrounded by amorphous ZnxFeyO were prepared through controlled phase segregation during the heating, which after multiple coating and heating cycles yielded ZnO–ZnxFeyO superlattices. The amorphous ZnxFeyO was a prerequisite for superlattice formation, and it profoundly affected the ZnO phase, inhibiting grain growth and texture, already from 1% Fe. In addition, ZnO–ZnxFeyO exhibited a photocatalytic activity for the oxidation of water that was higher than results reported for pure ZnO, and comparable to recent results reported for graphene-modified ZnO.

M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology| / The co-existence of organic acids and toxic heavy metals in natural water creates harmful effects on human, plants and animals. Therefore, it is necessary to treat organic acids and toxic heavy metal contaminated wastewater prior to its discharge to the environment. The aim of this study was to apply co-treatment of industrial wastewater containing citric acid and toxic heavy metals in single and binary systems using photocatalysis process. The hydrothermal method was used to synthesise dandelion-like TiO2 structures. Modifications of the dandelion-like TiO2 by deposition of gold nanoparticles and immobilisation on calcium alginate were done using deposition precipitation and one-step encapsulation methods, respectively. Dandelion-like TiO2 and dandelion-like TiO2 immobilised on calcium alginate (Alg/TiO2) were used as photocatalysts for Cr(VI), Hg(II) and citric acid removal from water. The results showed that the production of dandelion-like TiO2 structures strongly depends on the reaction time and synthesis temperature as key process parameters. The characterisation of the dandelion-like TiO2 by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) revealed the crystal structure, morphology, chemical composition and surface area. It was found that the efficiency of photocatalytic process depends on the type of pollutants, initial pH of the solution, photocatalyst dosage, contact time, substrate initial concentration, UV wavelength and light intensity. The reduction efficiency of Cr(VI) ion and citric acid increased with decreasing the initial pH values and initial concentration. On the other hand, Hg(II) reduction efficiency increased with increasing the initial pH values and initial concentration. In a binary system, the reduction of Cr(VI) and Hg(II) was found to be faster than in the single and ternary systems. The relationship of the chemical reaction rate of Cr(VI), Hg(II) and citric acid were expressed by the pseudo-first-order kinetic equation. Addition of ferric ions to Cr(VI)-citric acid complex and Hg(II)-citric acid complex enhanced the reduction of Cr(VI) and Hg(II), a complete reduction was accomplished within 30 and 60 minutes (min) of irradiation time, respectively. The reduction efficiency of both Cr(VI) and Hg(II) in the presence of citric acid in a solution was still significant after four times of Alg/TiO2 reuse. These results indicated that the UV/TiO2 photocatalysis process can be considered as a suitable method to reach a complete reduction of Cr(VI) and Hg(II) in the presence of citric acid in a solution.

L'objectif général du travail de recherche était l'amélioration de la compréhension de la réaction de dégradation photocatalytique de l’acide salicylique choisi comme polluant modèle. Un réacteur ouvert ayant un canal parallélépipédique, de largeur et de profondeur de l'ordre du millimètre, imprégné de catalyseur TiO₂ , a permis de caractériser la dégradation de l’acide salicylique en fonction des dimensions du canal, du débit, de la concentration en polluant et de l’intensité d'irradiation UV. La fraction dégradée d’acide salicylique diminue avec le débit, la concentration d’entrée et augmente avec l’intensité d’irradiation UV. Pour un temps de passage donné, la réduction de la profondeur et la largeur du microcanal, améliore l’efficacité de la dégradation. En effet, d'une manière générale, la vitesse de la réaction de dégradation est proportionnelle à la surface catalytique sur le volume réactionnel. Le rapport de la surface imprégnée sur le volume du microcanal est augmenté par la miniaturisation du canal ce qui entraine une meilleure dégradation. Un modèle basé sur le modèle de Langmuir-Hinshelwood et tenant compte du transfert de matière permet de rendre compte des résultats expérimentaux. Ce modèle met en évidence que la limitation de la réaction de dégradation par le transfert de matière est plus importante aux plus faibles débits (< 10 ml/h) et quand le canal devient plus profond. La simulation prédit des taux de conversion de l’ordre de 90 %, soit en agissant sur la géométrie (réacteur multicanaux, longueur totale des canaux de l’ordre du mètre), soit sur le procédé (réacteur à recyclage fermé) / The overall objective of the research work was to improve the understanding of the photocatalytic reaction of salicylic acid degradation chosen as model pollutant. An open reactor having a parallelepiped channel, of width and depth near millimetre size, coated with TiO₂ catalyst, was used to characterize the salicylic acid degradation in function of channel dimensions, flow rates, inlet pollutant concentrations and UV irradiation intensities. The degraded fraction of salicylic acid decreases with the flow rate, inlet concentration while it increases with UV irradiation intensity. For a given residence time, the reduction of the microchannel depth and width improve the degradation efficiency. Indeed, the reaction rate of degradation generally increases with the ratio of catalyst area on reaction volume. The ratio of coated area on microchannel volume is increased by miniaturization of the channel which leads to a larger degradation. A model based on the Langmuir-Hinshelwood approach which takes into account the mass-transfer account very well for the experimental results. This model highlights that reaction limitation by mass-transfer is larger at the lowest flows (< 10 mL/h) and when the channel becomes deeper. The simulation allows us to predict that conversion ratio of about 90%, can be reach by both acting on the geometry (multichannel reactor, total length of channels of the order of meter) or on the process (batch recirculation reactor)