O grande impacto ambiental causado pelo chorume proveniente de aterros sanitários impulsiona as pesquisas para o seu tratamento, com o objetivo de se obter a máxima degradação possível dos seus contaminantes recalcitrantes e tóxicos, diminuindo-se assim a sua toxicidade. O desenvolvimento de uma tecnologia eficiente e econômica para o tratamento é indispensável devido ao grande volume gerado e à legislação ambiental cada vez mais restritiva. Desta forma, os Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POAs) são avaliados como uma estratégia para o pré-tratamento, com um alto poder de degradação não seletivo e relação custo-benefício vantajosa. Dos diversos tipos de POAs existentes, aqueles que utilizam semicondutores para a fotocatálise heterogênea e luz solar como fonte de irradiação são os de maior interesse, devido a sua relativa eficiência, estabilidade fotoquímica, natureza não tóxica e baixo custo. Este estudo consistiu em avaliar o nível de degradação do chorume proveniente do aterro sanitário de Cachoeira Paulista - SP, utilizando como catalisador o ZnO irradiado pela luz solar, que possui um vasto espectro de fotoativação aliado ao seu baixo custo. As variáveis de entrada em dois níveis, foram o pH, o tempo de reação, a espessura da camada de ZnO impregnada sobre uma placa metálica e a concentração do efluente. Como variável resposta os valores de concentração expressa em Carbono Orgânico Total (COT) foi a mais adequada. O planejamento de experimentos utilizado foi o fatorial 23 com duplicata no ponto central. Na etapa delineatória, reduções de 28 % de COT foram alcançadas. A utilização da fotocatálise heterogênea utilizando ZnO fotoirradiado com luz solar se mostrou promissora para ser utilizada como um pré-tratamento do chorume. / The major environmental impact of leachate from landfills drives research to treat it, and aims to obtain the maximum degradation of their recalcitrant and toxic contaminants. The development of an efficient and economical treatment technology is indispensable due to the large volume generated and the increasingly restrictive environmental legislation. Thus, Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) are evaluated as a strategy to pre-treatment with a high power non-selective degradation and advantageous cost-benefit ratio. From various types of POAs, those which use the heterogeneous photocatalytic semiconductor and solar light as the source of irradiation are the most interesting, because of its relative efficiency, photochemical stability, low cost and non-toxic nature. This study have assessed the level of degradation of the leachate from the landfill of Cachoeira Paulista - SP, using ZnO irradiated by sunlight as catalyst, which has a wide spectrum of photoactivation combined with its low cost. The input variables on two levels, were pH, reaction time, the thickness of the ZnO layer impregnated on a metal plate and concentration of the effluent. The most appropriate output variable was concentration, expressed in means of Total Organic Carbon (TOC). For the photocatalytic process, a factorial design (23) was used for the design of experiments. In final stage, reductions of 28% TOC were achieved. The use of heterogeneous photocatalysis using solar photoirradiated ZnO seems to be a great alternative as a pre-treatment of leachate.

A ocorrência de fármacos no meio ambiente tem se tornado um assunto de interesse nos últimos anos. A preocupação com a presença de produtos farmacêuticos decorre de sua persistência química, resistência microbiana, e efeitos sinérgicos, que levam às implicações toxicológicas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o tratamento do efluente farmacêutico endoparasiticida. Para isso, os processos Fenton e Foto-Fenton foram usados para se obter a redução da carga orgânica do efluente em questão. Para a caracterização analítica do efluente farmacêutico in natura e tratado foram empregados métodos estabelecidos e otimizados, tais como DQO, COT, DBO5, Ferro, Sólidos (ST, STF, STV), fenol e análise de elementos via absorção atômica. Por meio de dois arranjos ortogonais - Taguchi L9 e Taguchi L16 - os parâmetros de melhor eficiência para o tratamento por Fenton e Foto-Fenton foram determinados. A matriz L9 foi utilizada para estudo exploratório dos fatores mais importantes na redução percentual da DQO. Este estudo mostrou que a condição experimental na qual se observou a maior porcentagem de redução de DQO (da ordem de 86,2 %) no efluente farmacêutico foi o experimento com reagente Fenton igual a 31,7g H2O2 e 2,2 g Fe2+, sem radiação ultravioleta, pH igual a 3,0 e temperatura de 30 °C. Já com a matriz L16 foram determinados os melhores experimentos, tendo como fatores resposta o percentual de redução do COT e percentual de degradação dos princípios ativos Fenbendazol e Triclabendazol. Portanto, a melhor configuração dos fatores foi Temperatura de 20°C, massa de H2O2 igual a 30 g, massa de Fe2+ igual a 2,5 g, pH igual a 3,0 e potência de radiação ultravioleta de 28 W, ou seja, a configuração que apresentou as maiores porcentagens de redução do COT (da ordem de 73,6%), degradação do Fenbendazol (da ordem de 77,8 %) e degradação do Triclabendazol (da ordem de 91,5 %). / The occurence of the drugs in the environment has become a subject of interest in the latest years. The concern with the presence of pharmaceutical products comes from its chemical persistence, microbial resistence and synergistic effects which lead to toxicological implications. The objective of this work was to evaluate of the treatment of endoparasiticide pharmaceutical effluent. For that, the photo-Fenton and Fenton were used for achieving the reduction of the organic load of the effluent in question. For the analytical characterization of pharmaceutical effluent in natura and treated were employed methods established and optimized such as DQO, COT, TOC, DBO5, Iron, Solid ( ST, STV, STF), phenol and element analysis via atomic absorption. By means of two orthogonal arrangements - Taguchi L9 and L16 - parameters of better efficiency in the treatment by Photo-Fenton and Fenton were determined. The L9 matrix was used for exploratory study of the most important factors in reducing the percentage of DQO. This study showed that the experimental condition, in which it was observed the highest percentage reduction of DQO (approximately 86.2%) in the pharmacist effluent, was the experiment with Fenton\'s reagent equal to 31,7g H2O2 e 2,2 g Fe2+, without ultraviolet radiation, pH equal to 3.0 and a temperature of 30 ° C. With the L16 matrix were determined as the best experiment with response factors the percentage reduction of COT and percentage of degradation of the active Fenbendazole and Triclabendazole. Therefore, the best configuration of the factors was 20 º C, H2O2 mass equal to 30g, Fe2 + mass of 2.5 g, and pH equal to 3.0 and power of 28W ultraviolet radiation, in other words the configuration that had the greatest percentage reduction of COT ( the order of 73.6%), Fenbendazole degradation (the order of 77.8%) and degradation Triclabendazole (the order of 91.5%).

Dans le contexte actuel de développement de nouvelles sources d'énergie non fossiles tout en minimisant l'impact environnemental, la production de carburants solaires par la valorisation des émissions anthropiques de CO2 apparaît comme une solution à fort potentiel. Le principal défi dans les processus artificiels photo-induits concerne le caractère bidimensionnel des systèmes utilisés, en raison de la faible profondeur de pénétration des photons. Ce travail de thèse se concentre sur le développement de mousses solides alvéolaires, issues de la chimie intégrative, présentant une porosité hiérarchiquement organisée. A travers l’imprégnation de précurseurs de TiO2, des photocatalyseurs autosupportés ont été synthétisés et ont montré une augmentation de la pénétration des photons d’un ordre de grandeur. D’autre part, ces solides limitent les réactions inverses par un effet de dilution, tout en assurant une sélectivité élevée envers la génération d'alcanes. Un modèle cinétique, basé sur un formalisme mixte de Langmuir-Hinshelwood et Eley-Rideal, est proposé pour décrire le comportement des matériaux. / In the current context of developing novel non-fossil energy sources while minimizing the environmental impact, solar-driven-fuel-production by exploiting anthropogenic CO2 emissions appears to be a solution with great potential. The main challenge in artificial photo-induced processes concerns the two-dimensional character of the systems used, due to the low photon penetration depth. This thesis work focuses on the development of alveolar solid foams, derived from integrative chemistry and bearing a hierarchically organized porosity. By TiO2 precursor impregnation, self-standing photocatalysts were synthesized and provided a photon penetration increase by an order of magnitude. Moreover, these solids limit back-reactions by a dilution effect, while ensuring high selectivity towards alkane generations. A kinetic model, based on a mixed formalism of Langmuir-Hinshelwood and Eley-Rideal, is proposed to describe material behavior.

A vinhaça é o principal resíduo obtido na produção de álcool, açúcar e aguardente, sendo considerado um efluente de alto poder poluente e fertilizante. Sem o devido tratamento, quando lançada nos rios compromete a sobrevivência de diversos seres aquáticos e quando utilizada como fertilizante, o efluente não tratado pode contaminar lençóis freáticos e afetar os seres terrestres. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em avaliar a eficiência e aplicação da fotocatálise heterogênea com TiO2, seguido por um tratamento biológico (lodo ativado) para a redução da carga orgânica do efluente em questão. A caracterização da vinhaça in natura e tratada foi realizada empregando-se métodos estabelecidos e otimizados [DQO, NPOC, DBO5, Análise de Elementos via Absorção Atômica, Fenol, Nitrogênio (orgânico e amoniacal) e Sólidos (ST, STF, STV)]. Por meio de planejamentos fatoriais completos foram determinadas as melhores condições experimentais posterior aos tratamentos fotocatalítico e biológico, tendo como variável resposta a redução de NPOC. Uma caracterização morfológica (DRX, BET e MEV-EDS) da estrutura de TiO2 anatase e rutilo também foi realizada. Após o processo fotocatalítico, a amostra do melhor experimento foi tratada por um processo biológico, a fim de verificar a eficiência de degradação da matéria orgânica do efluente estudado através do sistema híbrido (POA - SLA). Este sistema apresentou maior eficiência tendo como fatores do tratamento fotoquímico 180 minutos de reação, com aeração, pH 9 e efluente in natura; e pH 8 e concentração do lodo de 5 g L-1 no tratamento biológico. A redução de DBO alcançada foi superior a 80 %. / Vinasse is the main residue obtained by the production of alcohol, sugar and blue rum. It is considered a high power pollutant effluent and fertilizer. Untreated vinasse into ponds and rivers make the environment unsafe, especially, to different aquatic species and, when used as a fertilizer, the untreated effluent may contaminate freatic water beds and affect terrestrial species. The aim of this work consists of evaluating the efficiency and application of heterogeneous photocatalysis with TiO2, followed by a biological treatment (activated sludge system) to reduce organic load in the referred effluent. The characterization of vinasse in natura is carried out by the use of established and optimized methods [DQO, NPOC, DBO5, Elemental Analysis by Atomic Absorption, Phenol, Nitrogenium (organic and ammoniacal) and Solids (TS, FTS, VTS)]. Complete factorial designs indicated the best experimental conditions subsequent to photacatalytic and biological treatments providing a reduction of NPOC as a variable response. A morphological evaluation (XRD, B.E.T and SEM-EDS) of anatase and rutile phase of TiO2 structure was also performed. After the photocatalytic process, the sample of the best experiment was treated by a biological process in order to verify the degradation efficiency of the effluent organic matter studied according to the hybrid system (AOP - Activated Sludge System). This system, which presented more efficiency, had a photochemical treatment of 180 minutes carried out in aerated solutions, pH 9 and effluent in natura, while the biological treatment was performed at pH 8 and sludge concentration of 5 g L-1. The reduction of BOD was more than 80%.

A ocorrência de fármacos no meio ambiente tem se tornado um assunto de interesse nos últimos anos. A preocupação com a presença de produtos farmacêuticos decorre de sua persistência química, resistência microbiana, e efeitos sinérgicos, que levam às implicações toxicológicas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o tratamento do efluente farmacêutico endoparasiticida. Para isso, os processos Fenton e Foto-Fenton foram usados para se obter a redução da carga orgânica do efluente em questão. Para a caracterização analítica do efluente farmacêutico in natura e tratado foram empregados métodos estabelecidos e otimizados, tais como DQO, COT, DBO5, Ferro, Sólidos (ST, STF, STV), fenol e análise de elementos via absorção atômica. Por meio de dois arranjos ortogonais - Taguchi L9 e Taguchi L16 - os parâmetros de melhor eficiência para o tratamento por Fenton e Foto-Fenton foram determinados. A matriz L9 foi utilizada para estudo exploratório dos fatores mais importantes na redução percentual da DQO. Este estudo mostrou que a condição experimental na qual se observou a maior porcentagem de redução de DQO (da ordem de 86,2 %) no efluente farmacêutico foi o experimento com reagente Fenton igual a 31,7g H2O2 e 2,2 g Fe2+, sem radiação ultravioleta, pH igual a 3,0 e temperatura de 30 °C. Já com a matriz L16 foram determinados os melhores experimentos, tendo como fatores resposta o percentual de redução do COT e percentual de degradação dos princípios ativos Fenbendazol e Triclabendazol. Portanto, a melhor configuração dos fatores foi Temperatura de 20°C, massa de H2O2 igual a 30 g, massa de Fe2+ igual a 2,5 g, pH igual a 3,0 e potência de radiação ultravioleta de 28 W, ou seja, a configuração que apresentou as maiores porcentagens de redução do COT (da ordem de 73,6%), degradação do Fenbendazol (da ordem de 77,8 %) e degradação do Triclabendazol (da ordem de 91,5 %). / The occurence of the drugs in the environment has become a subject of interest in the latest years. The concern with the presence of pharmaceutical products comes from its chemical persistence, microbial resistence and synergistic effects which lead to toxicological implications. The objective of this work was to evaluate of the treatment of endoparasiticide pharmaceutical effluent. For that, the photo-Fenton and Fenton were used for achieving the reduction of the organic load of the effluent in question. For the analytical characterization of pharmaceutical effluent in natura and treated were employed methods established and optimized such as DQO, COT, TOC, DBO5, Iron, Solid ( ST, STV, STF), phenol and element analysis via atomic absorption. By means of two orthogonal arrangements - Taguchi L9 and L16 - parameters of better efficiency in the treatment by Photo-Fenton and Fenton were determined. The L9 matrix was used for exploratory study of the most important factors in reducing the percentage of DQO. This study showed that the experimental condition, in which it was observed the highest percentage reduction of DQO (approximately 86.2%) in the pharmacist effluent, was the experiment with Fenton\'s reagent equal to 31,7g H2O2 e 2,2 g Fe2+, without ultraviolet radiation, pH equal to 3.0 and a temperature of 30 ° C. With the L16 matrix were determined as the best experiment with response factors the percentage reduction of COT and percentage of degradation of the active Fenbendazole and Triclabendazole. Therefore, the best configuration of the factors was 20 º C, H2O2 mass equal to 30g, Fe2 + mass of 2.5 g, and pH equal to 3.0 and power of 28W ultraviolet radiation, in other words the configuration that had the greatest percentage reduction of COT ( the order of 73.6%), Fenbendazole degradation (the order of 77.8%) and degradation Triclabendazole (the order of 91.5%).

Pour répondre aux aspects essentiels du développement durable, les nouvelles constructions doivent réduire leur consommation énergétique. Cela se traduit par une meilleure isolation des bâtiments mais aussi par une maitrise et un control du renouvellement de l'air par ventilation mécanique contrôlée. De telles actions participent à l’augmentation des concentrations de polluants en intérieur pouvant avoir des conséquences sanitaires importantes. La technique de dépollution passive de l’air reposant sur des processus photocatalytiques est une solution intéressante pour répondre à cette problématique. L’objectif de cette étude est d’optimiser une peinture pour application intérieure contenant des nanoparticules de dioxyde de titane (TiO2) afin de réduire les concentrations de polluants gazeux comme de dioxyde d’azote (NO2) tout en limitant la formation de contaminants tel que l’acide nitreux (HONO). Dans cette optique, durant cette thèse, différents jeux de peintures (photocatalytiques et de référence) ont été étudiés dans des conditions simulées de laboratoire et dans un environnement réel. Les expériences en laboratoire ont montré une efficacité d’élimination du NO2 jusqu’à 4 fois plus importante sur une peinture photocatalytique que sur une peinture standard. Cette étude met également en évidence la formation hétérogène d’acide nitreux pendant la réaction photocatalysée du NO2. Les rendements de formation de HONO sont compris entre 4 et 20 % du NO2 consommé. Lors d’une étude à échelle 1, dans une pièce modèle, des concentrations significatives de HONO ont été mesurées. Ces observations mettent à jour des mécanismes encore non élucidés de formation de cette espèce en air / In order to improve building energy consumption, new constructions reduce air exchange rate by including better insulation and adding controlled ventilation. However, this energetic advantage participates in increasing the concentration of indoor pollutants and can be the cause of adverse effects on the occupants’ health. A possible solution to this issue is to use the photocatalysis principle/theory as an innovating technique for air remediation. The aim of this study is to optimize photocatalytic materials containing titanium dioxide (TiO2) in order to reduce the concentrations of indoor air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) without the generation of emerging contaminants such as nitrous acid HONO. Over the course of this Ph.D., effects of different photocatalytic paints, tested under simulated and real conditions were studied. Laboratory experiments showed an effective elimination of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) up to 4 times higher with a photocatalytic paint than with a standard paint, the most important parameters influencing NO2 elimination being nanoTiO2 quantity built-in the paint, light intensity, and temperature. This study also highlights the heterogeneous formation of nitrous acid (HONO) during the photocatalysis of NO2, reactivity yields range from 4 % to 20 % of used NO2. During a scale one study in a model room, a significant concentration of HONO was measured. Those observations reveal yet not fully elucidated mechanisms for the indoor formation of this compound

La mise en forme de matériaux fonctionnels et leur texturation contrôlée à toutes les échelles sont des conditions sine qua non pour l’amélioration des systèmes existants. Ce projet de thèse consiste en la création de structures solides complexes en utilisant des méthodes interdisciplinaires telles que la chimie sol-gel et la physique des fluides complexes. Ainsi, il est possible d’obtenir des fibres ou des films de dioxyde de Titane poreux présentant des pores de différentes tailles organisés hiérarchiquement. Cette organisation texturale optimise le transport de matière (gaz / liquides) pour des applications telles que la dépollution d’air (photocatalyse) ou les cellules solaires à colorant. Par ailleurs, nous avons contrôlé l’alignement de nano-bâtonnets d’oxyde de Zinc au sein d’une fibre macroscopique générant ainsi des propriétés collectives d’émission de lumière (photoluminescence)anisotrope, spécificité d’utilité pour l’électronique à permutation. Enfin, nous avons synthétisé des nano objets anisotropiques et des nano-lamelles de polypyrrole afin de générer des films minces lisses avec des propriétés électriques permettant leur utilisation comme électrode ou électrolyte solide dans des cellules solaires à colorant. / The shaping of functional materials and the control of their texture at all length scales are sine qua non conditions for the improvement of current systems. This PhD project consists in creating complex solid architectures using interdisciplinary methods such as sol-gel chemistry or complex fluids physics. Therefore, it is possible to synthesize Titanium Dioxide macroscopic fibers orfilms which possess a hierarchical porosity. This organization allows the optimization of the matter transport (liquid/gaz) for air depollution application (photocatalysis) or dye-sensitizedsolar cells. In another project, we were able to control the alignment of zinc oxide nanorods within a macroscopic fiber. This alignment provides to the fiber an anisotropic photoluminescence behavior which can be useful for switching devices application. Finally, we synthesized anisotropic particles and nano-sheets of polypyrrole (conducting polymer) in order to obtain smooth thin films presenting interesting electrical properties. The objective was to use them as electrolyte and/or electrode in dye-sensitized solar cells.

Pharmaceuticals have been detected in natural waters for more than forty years, but with improvements in sample preparation procedures and analytical instrumentation, the number of scientific publications on the issue has increased significantly. Even though the concentration of pharmaceutical residues in surface and drinking water is not critical for human health according to the present level of knowledge, the consequences for the environment are not clear. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been identified as the primary route of pharmaceuticals to the environment, with households as the major source point for most of the over-the-counter and prescription drugs. In this thesis, the first aim was to study the occurrence, fate and removal of 43 pharmaceuticals during conventional wastewater treatment. The target compounds were selected on the basis of their high consumption in Spain or/and frequently reported detection in wastewaters and the possibility to be analyzed under the same experimental conditions. They belong to different therapeutic classes, i.e. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents and analgesics, lipid modifying agents, psycholeptic and antiepileptic drugs, beta-blocking agents, beta-2-adrenoreceptor agonists, H2-receptor antagonists, antibiotics, angiotensin converting enzyme agents, diuretics and antidiabetic drugs. A wide variation in removal efficiencies was observed even for individual compounds, and across therapeutic classes and treatment processes, without clear conclusion on the removal of any particular compound. According to mass balance calculations and estimated partition coefficients, the loss of the selected pharmaceuticals during biological wastewater treatment can be fully attributed to biodegradation/biotransformation. None of the studied compounds was entirely biodegraded and/or transformed during biological wastewater treatment, but the measured concentrations were below the levels of concern according to available toxicity data. Conventional WWTPs cannot be expected to be the only mechanism for controlling the entry of pharmaceuticals into the environment because they were neither designed nor can provide their complete removal. Therefore, the challenge is to look for solutions that would be the most economical and effective means of preventing further pollution of natural waters by pharmaceuticals. More appropriate management of sewage waters before they enter treatment plants as well as a stricter control of effluent discharges, along with an in-depth investigation on the development of new designs and strategies for the improvement of existing wastewater treatments should be considered. In light of this, as the second objective of this thesis, alternative approaches for the removal of the antiepileptic carbamazepine (CBZ) were studied in aqueous media in two laboratory scale experiments: a) biodegradation using white rot fungus T. versicolor in an air-pulsed fluidized bioreactor operated in batch and continuous modes, and b) advanced oxidation using TiO2-heterogeneous photocatalysis under simulated solar and UV-A irradiation, and under the combined use of ultrasound and UV-A irradiation (sonophotocatalysis). We selected CBZ as a representative example of compounds that are found to be refractory to biological treatment and ubiquitous in various environmental matrices. Both, the fungal and UVA-driven TiO2-photocatalytic treatments, very different in their nature, have been shown to be very effective in degrading carbamazepine in aqueous media. The fungal treatment resulted in average removals of 54 and 96% in batch and continuous reactor, respectively. Acute toxicity test using the bioluminescent marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri showed a decrease in toxicity during the treatment in both types of bioreactor. In the other study, initial CBZ concentrations were reduced for 95% during 120 min of the UV-driven photocatalytic experiment and sonophotocatalysis, while only 10 % of CBZ was photodegraded during under solar irradiation. A slight increase in toxicity in Daphnia magna acute toxicity testing was observed over the time-course of the photocatalytic experiments, which can be associated with the formation of transformation products of CBZ. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used for a tentative identification of the transformation products of CBZ formed during the performed experiments. Most of the tentatively identified intermediates exhibited only slight modifications of the CBZ molecular structure. The fungal as well as the photocatalytic processes yielded oxygenated transformation products. In the biological treatment using T. versicolor, transformation products were formed by enzymatic epoxidation and hydroxylation of seven-membered heterocyclic ring of the carbamazepine molecule. During the photocatalytic experiments, CBZ-related transformation products emerged from hydroxylation and further oxidation of different parts of the molecule of carbamazepine. The generated transformation products appeared to be more persistent than their parent compound, as they were present, although at low concentration, until the end of the experiments. The results of the thesis contribute to a better understanding of a) the magnitude of the selected pharmaceuticals that reach the environment through the wastewater and sludge discharge, b) the efficiency of typical conventional wastewater treatment plants regarding the removal of these compounds from raw wastewater, and c) possible developments of alternative technologies for their enhanced elimination. / Desde hace más de cuarenta años se ha detectado la presencia de fármacos en el ciclo de aguas, sobre todo debido a los avances en la química analítica que han permitido el desarrollo de nuevas metodologías analíticas para la determinación de estos compuestos de modo fiable y a bajas concentraciones. Las estaciones depuradoras de aguas residuales (EDARs) han sido identificadas como la ruta principal de entrada de fármacos de origen humano en el medioambiente. Por tanto, el principal objetivo de esta tesis ha sido el estudio de la presencia, destino y eliminación de 43 fármacos seleccionados, durante el tratamiento convencional realizado en las EDARs. Los compuestos estudiados fueron seleccionados en base a los índices de consumo en España, a la frecuencia de detección en aguas residuales y además en base a la posibilidad de ser analizados bajo las mismas condiciones experimentales. Estos compuestos pertenecen a diferentes clases terapéuticas, i.e. antiinflamatorios no esteroideos , los agentes que reducen los lípidos séricos, ansiolíticos y antiepilépticos, los agentes bloqueadores beta-adrenérgicos, agonistas β2 adrenérgico, antagonistas H2 , antibióticos, inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina, diuréticos y antidiabéticos. Para el análisis cuantitativo se utilizó la cromatografía de líquidos acoplada a espectrometría de masas en tándem (LC-MS/MS), empleando un sistema híbrido triple quadrupolo/trampa de iones lineal. Como segundo objetivo hemos considerado evaluar tratamientos avanzados alternativos al tratamiento convencional para la eliminación de un fármaco antiepiléptico, la carbamazepina, uno de los compuestos más recalcitrantes al tratamiento biológico convencional. Se procedió a estudiar su degradación en medio acuoso mediante dos procedimientos a escala laboratorio: a) biodegradación utilizando el hongo ligninolitico Trametes Versicolor en un reactor fluidizado por pulsos de aire operando en modo batch y continuo, y b) oxidación avanzada mediante un tratamiento fotocatalitico en presencia de TiO2 bajo irradiación UV-A y solar, y aplicando la radiación UV en combinación con ultrasonidos (sonofotocatálisis). Para la evaluación de los tratamientos alternativos, se identificaron los productos de transformación de la carbamazepina, y se evaluó la toxicidad de las muestras tratadas. Se utilizó la LC-MS/MS con analizador de tipo cuadrupolo-tiempo de vuelo. También se evaluó la toxicidad de las muestras tratadas.

In light of its rapidly growing energy demand, human society has an urgent need to become much more strongly reliant on renewable and sustainable energy carriers. Molecular hydrogen made from water with solar energy could provide an ideal case. The development of inexpensive, robust and rare element free catalysts is crucial for this technology to succeed. Enzymes in nature can give us ideas about what such catalysts could look like, but for the directed adjustment of any natural or synthetic catalyst to the requirements of large scale catalysis, its capabilities and limitations need to be understood on the level of individual reaction steps. This thesis deals with kinetic and mechanistic investigations of photo- and electrocatalytic hydrogen production with natural and synthetic molecular catalysts. Photochemical hydrogen production can be achieved with both E. coli Hyd-2 [NiFe] hydrogenase and a synthetic dinuclear [FeFe] hydrogenase active site model by ruthenium polypyridyl photosensitization. The overall quantum yields are on the order of several percent. Transient UV-Vis absorption experiments reveal that these yields are strongly controlled by the competition of charge recombination reactions with catalysis. With the hydrogenase major electron losses occur at the stage of enzyme reduction by the reduced photosensitizer. In contrast, catalyst reduction is very efficient in case of the synthetic dinuclear active site model. Here, losses presumably occur at the stage of reduced catalyst intermediates. Moreover, the synthetic catalyst is prone to structural changes induced by competing ligands such as secondary amines or DMF, which lead to catalytically active, potentially mononuclear, species. Investigations of electrocatalytic hydrogen production with a mononuclear catalyst by cyclic voltammetry provide detailed kinetic and mechanistic information on the catalyst itself. By extension of existing theory, it is possible to distinguish between alternative catalytic pathways and to extract rate constants for individual steps of catalysis. The equilibrium constant for catalyst protonation can be determined, and limits can be set on both the protonation and deprotonation rate constant. Hydrogen bond formation likely involves two catalyst molecules, and even the second order rate constant characterizing hydrogen bond formation and/or release can be determined.

Στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή μελετάται η φωτοκαταλυτική διάσπαση του νερού προς παραγωγή υδρογόνου με χρήση πηγής που προσομοιώνει την ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκαν φωτοκαταλύτες είτε θειούχου καδμίου (CdS) σε συνδυασμό με θειούχα και θειώδη άλατα του νατρίου (Na2S-Na2SO3) είτε διοξειδίου του τιτανίου (TiO2) σε συνδυασμό με γλυκερόλη (C3O5(OH)3). Χρησιμοποιώντας φωτοκαταλύτη θειούχου καδμίου (CdS) εξετάστηκε η δυνατότητα παρασκευής σταθερών καταλυτών με i) διαφορετικό διαλύτη, ii) διαφορετικές πρόδρομες ενώσεις, και iii) με σύζευξη του CdS με ημιαγωγούς μεγαλύτερου ενεργειακού χάσματος, το θειούχο ψευδάργυρο (ZnS) ή/και το διοξείδιο του τιτανίου (TiO2), σε διάφορες αναλογίες σύνθεσης. Παρατηρήθηκε ότι η απόδοση του παραγόμενου καταλύτη εξαρτάται από τη μέθοδο παρασκευής του, και βελτιώνεται σημαντικά όταν το CdS συζευχθεί με το ZnS σε αναλογία CdS/ZnS (25-75). Επιπλέον αύξηση του ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου ελήφθη εναποθέτοντας 0.5% κ.β. Pt στην επιφάνεια του σύνθετου φωτοκαταλύτη CdS/ZnS (25-75). Η σύνθεση του CdS με TiO2 ή με TiO2 και ZnS και ταυτόχρονη εναπόθεση 0.5% κ.β., πλατίνας (0.5% Pt-CdS/TiO2, 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS/TiO2), οδηγεί και πάλι σε αύξηση του ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου χωρίς όμως να παρατηρείται σημαντική διαφοροποίηση σε σχέση με το ρυθμό που ελήφθη με φωτοκαταλύτη 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-75). Αντικατάσταση των συμβατικών θυσιαζόμενων ενώσεων (Na2S και Na2SO3) με αιθανόλη (1% κ.ο.), οδήγησε σε μηδενικό καταλυτικό ρυθμό στην περίπτωση των φωτοκαταλυτών 0.5%Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-70) και 0.5%Pt-CdS, ενώ στην περίπτωση των 0.5%Pt CdS/TiO2 (50-50) και 0.5%Pt CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1) ο ρυθμός μειώθηκε σημαντικά. Ταυτόχρονη χρήση θυσιαζόμενων ενώσεων (Na2SO3-Na2S και αιθανόλης) μόνο στην περίπτωση του 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1) οδηγεί σε διαδοχική δράση των δύο θυσιαζόμενων ενώσεων Χρησιμοποιώντας φωτοκαταλύτη διοξειδίου του τιτανίου ενισχυμένο με 0.5% κ.β. πλατίνα (0.5%Pt-TiO2) σε υδατικό αιώρημα παρουσία γλυκερόλης (C3O5(OH)3), πραγματοποιήθηκε συνδυασμός της φωτοκαταλυτικής διάσπασης του νερού και της φωτο-επαγόμενης οξείδωσης της οργανικής ένωσης υπό αναερόβιες συνθήκες. Με τον τρόπο αυτόν, το νερό ανάγεται για την παραγωγή Η2 ενώ η οργανική ένωση, που ενεργεί ως δότης ηλεκτρονίων, οξειδώνεται προς το CO2. Η παρουσία της γλυκερόλης στο διάλυμα οδηγεί παράλληλα σε σημαντική αύξηση του ρυθμού παραγωγής Η2, λόγω της επιπρόσθετης παραγωγής υδρογόνου (additional hydrogen, H2,add.), η οποία προέρχεται από τη διάσπαση της οργανικής ένωσης. Τα συνολικά παραγόμενα ποσά των H2,add. και CO2 έχουν αναλογία μορίων H2,add.:CO2 πρακτικά ίση με 7:3, η οποία αντιστοιχεί στην αντίδραση αναμόρφωσης της γλυκερόλης (C3H8O3 + 3H2O  3CO2 + 7H2). Τα αποτελέσματα που ελήφθησαν από σειρά πειραμάτων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν μεταβάλλοντας τις λειτουργικές παραμέτρους της αντίδρασης αναμόρφωσης της γλυκερόλης, έδειξαν ότι ο ρυθμός παραγωγής υδρογόνου εξαρτάται, κυρίως, από τη συγκέντρωση της γλυκερόλης και, σε μικρότερο βαθμό, από το είδος και τη φόρτιση του μετάλλου, το pH, τη θερμοκρασία του διαλύματος και τη συγκέντρωση του καταλύτη στο αιώρημα. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η μελέτη της επίδρασης της φύσης του μετάλλου (0,5%κ.β., Pt, Pd, Ru, Rh, Ag), έδειξε ότι ο μέγιστος ρυθμός παραγωγής υδρογόνου λαμβάνεται με χρήση Pt, καθώς η σειρά ενεργότητας των μετάλλων μεταβάλλεται ως εξής, Pt>Pd>Ru>Rh>Ag. Η επίδραση της φόρτισης σε μέταλλο (Pt) στο ρυθμό παραγωγής υδρογόνου, σε ένα εύρος τιμών από 0,05 έως 5% κ.β Pt, έδειξε ότι ο μέγιστος ρυθμός παραγωγής υδρογόνου αυξάνει με αύξηση της φόρτισης σε μέταλλο στην περιοχή 0,05-0,5% κ.β Pt, ενώ για φορτίσεις μεγαλύτερες του 2% κ.β Pt σημειώνεται μείωση του ρυθμού. Η αύξηση της συγκέντρωσης του καταλύτη (0,5%Pt/TiO2) στο αιώρημα από 0,6 g/L έως 2,66 g/L οδηγεί σε σταδιακή αύξηση και τελικά σταθεροποίηση του μέγιστου ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου. Ο ρυθμός της αντίδρασης αυξάνει σε βασικά διαλύματα, σε σχέση με το ρυθμό που μετρήθηκε σε φυσικό pH, και μειώνεται σε όξινα διαλύματα. Επιπλέον, αύξηση του ρυθμού επιτυγχάνεται με αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας από τους 40oC στους 60oC, ενώ περαιτέρω αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας στους 80oC δεν οδηγεί σε σημαντική μεταβολή του ρυθμού. Η σημαντικότερη παράμετρος που επηρεάζει το ρυθμό παραγωγής υδρογόνου είναι η συγκέντρωση της γλυκερόλης στο αιώρημα. Αύξηση της αρχικής συγκέντρωσης της γλυκερόλης στο αιώρημα από 10-4 έως 100 mol L-1 οδηγεί σε αύξηση του μέγιστου ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου, το οποίο αυξάνεται μονοτονικά με το λογάριθμο της συγκέντρωσης της γλυκερόλης έως και δύο τάξεις μεγέθους. Αντίστοιχα πειράματα επίδρασης της συγκέντρωσης της γλυκερόλης και της μάζας του φωτοκαταλύτη στο αιώρημα, όπως και της % φόρτισης της πλατίνας στην επιφάνεια του 0,5%Pt/TiO2, πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε ξεχωριστό αντιδραστήρα. Ο αντιδραστήρας αυτός περιέχει εσωτερικά λαμπτήρα ισχύος 4W, ο οποίος προσομοιώνει την υπεριώδη ακτινοβολία και εκπέμπει φωτόνια στα 365nm. Σε κάθε περίπτωση, τα αποτελέσματα είναι ποιοτικά όμοια με αυτά που ελήφθησαν με ορατή ακτινοβολία. Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι με χρήση υπεριώδους ακτινοβολίας λαμβάνονται μεγαλύτεροι καταλυτικοί ρυθμοί σε σχέση με αυτούς που ελήφθησαν με ορατή ακτινοβολία. Τα αποτελέσματα πειραμάτων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν για τον προσδιορισμό των ενδιάμεσων και τελικών προϊόντων (αέριων ή/και υγρών) της αντίδραση αναμόρφωσης της γλυκερόλης υδατικού αιωρήματος συγκέντρωσης 17 mM, έδειξαν ότι κύριο ενδιάμεσο προϊόν της αντίδρασης είναι η μεθανόλη, ενώ ταυτόχρονα ανιχνεύθηκαν σημαντικά μικρότερες ποσότητες οξικού οξέος. Ως τελικά προϊόντα ανιχνεύθηκαν μόνο Η2 και CO2, τα οποία ποσοτικά βρίσκονται σε πλήρη συμφωνία με αυτά που αναμένονται από τη στοιχειομετρία της αντίδρασης. Μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε για τη διερεύνηση της μη στοιχειομετρικής έκλυσης οξυγόνου απουσία και παρουσία γλυκερόλης συγκέντρωσης 0.0-1.36 mM. Τα αποτελέσματα οδηγούν στο συμπέρασμα ότι το φωτοπαραγόμενο οξυγόνο είτε παραμένει δεσμευμένο στην επιφάνεια του φωτοκαταλύτη με τη μορφή περοξοτιτανικών συμπλόκων ή οξειδίων του τιτανίου, είτε απελευθερώνεται στο διάλυμα με τη μορφή Η2Ο2. Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις η ποσότητα των υπεροξειδικών ειδών στην επιφάνεια του φωτοκαταλύτη τείνει προς μια οριακή τιμή (~20 μmol), η οποία πιθανότατα αντιστοιχεί στη μέγιστη δυνατή κάλυψη του TiO2 με υπεροξειδικά είδη. Ποιοτικά όμοια αποτελέσματα ελήφθησαν και από αντίστοιχα πειράματα που έγιναν με χρήση γλυκόζης συγκέντρωσης 0.0-0.417mM. Η κβαντική απόδοση (quantum yield) των φωτο-επαγόμενων αντιδράσεων αναμόρφωσης μετρήθηκε σε ξεχωριστό φωτοαντιδραστηρα με χρήση λαμπτήρα “black light” που εκπέμπει στα 365 nm. Διαπιστώθηκε ότι κβαντική απόδοση από 1,8% που ελήφθη για το καθαρό νερό, αυξάνεται σε 70%, με αιώρημα γλυκερόλης συγκέντρωσης 1Μ. Τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την αποικοδόμηση ρύπων σε θερμοκρασία δωματίου και ατμοσφαιρική πίεση, με ταυτόχρονη παραγωγή υδρογόνου έχοντας υψηλή απόδοση. / In the present study a detailed investigation has been carried out in an attempt to obtain photocatalytic hydrogen production with simulated the solar irradiation. The employed photocatalysts were either cadmium sulfide (CdS) in the presence of sodium sulfide and sulfide salts (Na2S-Na2SO3) or titanium dioxide (TiO2) in the presence of glycerol (C3O5(OH)3). Using cadmium sulfide (CdS) as phototcatalyst, the possibility of producing stabilized photocatalysts was investigated with i) various solvents, ii) various precursors and iii) combined with wide band gap photocatalysts, like zinc sulphide (ZnS) or/and titanium dioxide (TiO2), with different ratio. Results revealed that CdS preparation process significantly influences the photocatalytic effectiveness and increase the hydrogen production. Increase in hydrogen production can be achieved by coupling CdS with ZnS in a ratio of CdS/ZnS (25-75). A further increase in the rate of hydrogen production was observed by dispersion of Pt (0.5 wt %) in the surface of the compined photocatalyst, CdS/ZnS (25-75). Additionally, as experimental results indicated, increase in hydrogen production can be achieved by coupling CdS with TiO2 (0.5% Pt-CdS/TiO2) or alternatively by mixing CdS with TiO2 and ZnS (0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS/TiO2). In both cases, the obtained rates of hydrogen production were not much different with that obtained with the use of 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-75). Replacing the conventional sacrificial agents (Na2S-Na2SO3) with ethanol (1% v/v), the rates of hydrogen production became zero, in the case of photocatalysts 0.5%Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-70) and 0.5%Pt-CdS or significantly decreased, in the case of photocatalysts 0.5%Pt CdS/TiO2 (50-50) and 0.5%Pt CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1). Simultaneous use of sacrificial agents with 1% v/v ethanol (Na2SO3-Na2S and 1% ethanol), results in successive action of the two sacrificial agents, only for the case of 0.5%Pt CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1). Using titanium dioxide (TiO2), as phototcatalyst in the presence of glycerol (C3O5(OH)3), resulted both in photocatalytic splitting of water and light-induced oxidation of organic substrates into a single process, that takes place at ambient conditions in the absence of gas-phase oxygen. According to the proposed mechanism, the water is reduced to hydrogen, while the organic compound acts as electron donor and gradually oxidized towards to carbon dioxide (CO2). Irradiation of aqueous glycerol, results in notably strong evolution of H2, because of the additional production of hydrogen (additional hydrogen, H2, add.), which comes from the splitting of glycerol. The total amounts of H2,add. and CO2 are practically equal to the molar ratio H2,add..:CO2 7:3, which corresponds in the reaction of reforming (C3H8O3 + 3H2O  3CO2 + 7H2). The results of experiments were conducted in order to investigate the effects of operating parameters on the rate of hydrogen production, showed that the rate of hydrogen production depends strongly on glycerol concentration and, to a lesser extent, on the kind of metal loading, on solution pH and temperature and the concentration of photocatalyst in solution. Specifically, experiments of the effectiveness of the nature of the dispersed metal on catalytic performance showed that the maximum rate of hydrogen production is obtained with the use of Pt, as efficiency of the metal doped TiO2 is in the order of Pt > Pd > Ru >Rh >Ag. The effect of metal loading (Pt) on the reaction rate has been investigated in the range of 0.0-5.0 wt.%, and showed that the maximum rate of hydrogen production increased with increasing Pt loading from 0.05 to 0.5 wt% but decreased for load greater than 2% wt. Pt. Increase the catalyst concentration (0,5%Pt/TiO2) in the solution in the range of 0,6 g/L until 2,66 g/L leads to progressive increase on the reaction rate, which is finally stabilized on the biggest rate of hydrogen production. The rate of hydrogen evolution is higher at neutral or basic solutions, compared to acidic solutions and increased with increasing temperature from 40oC to 60-80oC (Fig. 3). Further increase of solution temperature up to 80oC did not induce significant changes on the rate. The most important parameter, which mainly determines the rate of hydrogen production, is glycerol concentration (C) in solution. In particular, increasing the glycerol concentration (C) in solution, in the range of 10-4 until 100 mol L-1, results in a linear increase of the maximum rate of hydrogen production with logCglyc. The maximum rate increased about two orders of magnitude with increase of Cglyc from zero to 1M. Corresponding experiments of effect of glycerol, photocatalyst concentration in the suspension and % Pt loading in the surface of 0.5%Pt/TiO2 were conducted in separate reactor. The photo-reactor includes the lamp, which simulates UV irradiation emitting at 365 nm. In all cases, the results were qualitatively similar with those obtained with the use of UV-Vis irradiation. The only difference was that with UV irradiation bigger rates of hydrogen production are obtained. Experiments designed with the purpose to define the formation of reaction’s intermediates and final products (gas or/and liquid), in glycerol solution concentration 17 mM, indicated that methanol is the main reaction intermediate, small amounts of acetic was also detected in the liquid phase. The final products were only H2 and CO2, which are in great agreement with those predicted from the stoichiometry of the reforming reaction. The investigation of slurries for the non-stoichiometric oxygen production, in the presence or in the absent of glycerol (concentration 0.0-1.36 mM), indicated that photogenerated oxygen is bound at the catalyst surface as peroxotitanate complexes or titanoxide, or is released in the solution as Η2Ο2. In all cases, the quantity of peroxide species at the catalyst’s surface tends to a marginal value (~20 μmol), which corresponds to the possibility of maximum cover of TiO2. Qualitatively similar results were obtained with the use of glucose slurries in concentration 0.0-0.417mM. The quantum yield (QY) of hydrogen evolution was measured in the photoreactor with the UV lamp emitting at 365 nm. It is observed that quantum yield increased from 1.8%, for pure water to 70%, for glycerol solution concentration 1M. The results of my thesis can be used for waste degradation in ambient conditions with simultaneous production of hydrogen and high efficiency.