Thesis advisor: James M. Smith / This dissertation examines individual experiences of grief and trauma in Irish writing from 1935 to 2013, focusing specifically on novels by Elizabeth Bowen, Samuel Beckett, Sebastian Barry, and Eimear McBride. It offers a feminist reclamation of personal forms of loss that fall outside the purview of documented history and that typically go overlooked in literary criticism. Examples in this study include the suffering caused by the natural death of a family member, infertility, domestic and sexual abuse, social ostracism, institutionalization, and forced adoption. Through careful close readings of Bowen’s The House in Paris (1935) and The Death of the Heart (1938), Beckett’s Molloy (1955), Barry’s The Secret Scripture (2008), and McBride’s A Girl Is a Half-Formed Thing (2013), I unpack how women’s insidious vulnerability to grief and trauma manifests in modern and contemporary Irish fiction. The works I discuss here reveal the depth and complexity of grief—making visible forms of loss and violence that society tends to ignore, working through what impedes the grieving process, and giving voice to underrepresented experiences of emotional and psychological suffering. Over three chapters, I engage with the discourses of trauma theory, Irish memory studies, and modernism and its afterlives. I draw on feminist psychiatrist Laura S. Brown’s discussion of “insidious trauma” to inform my own concept, “insidious vulnerability,” which I use to refer to the persistent threat of loss and violence that haunts marginalized groups in their daily lives. Likewise, I make reference to the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic definition of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to distinguish trauma from other forms of emotional and psychological distress. I contribute to Irish memory studies by extending the critical conversation beyond public historical events (like the Easter Rising of 1916)—to include private forms of grief and trauma, particularly in the lives of women. Furthermore, I focus on authors who innovate, whose novels exhibit dissatisfaction with the limitations of conventional realist narratives and who attempt new modes of representation in an effort to articulate the inexpressible and the unexpressed. Bowen and Beckett stand as representatives of late modernism (1930s-1950s), while Barry and McBride help extend literary modernist afterlives into the twenty-first century. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: English.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo compreender a vivência de luto em adultos pela perda de suas mães na infância e como pode ser ressignificada em outras fases da vida. A morte de um ente querido leva a processos de luto dolorosos e, no caso de crianças que perdem uma figura parental, este sofrimento pode se agravar pelo fato de serem ainda dependentes física e emocionalmente de seus pais. Assim, buscou-se compreender, a partir do relato de adultos, a experiência vivida na infância e a possibilidade de ressignificações na história de vida de cada indivíduo. Trata-se de pesquisa qualitativa, com inspiração em aspectos da Abordagem Centrada na Pessoa, teoria desenvolvida por Carl Rogers. Foram realizadas entrevistas abertas, que partiram da pergunta: como foi ter vivido a perda de sua mãe? e foram acompanhadas de acordo com o que os colaboradores consideravam relevante. Participaram deste estudo seis adultos, 3 homens e 3 mulheres, com idades entre 32 e 61 anos, que perderam a mãe por morte quando tinham entre 5 e 12 anos de idade. Os colaboradores foram localizados pela divulgação do trabalho entre pessoas conhecidas e escolheram participar voluntariamente. Na análise compreensiva das narrativas foram destacados os trechos mais representativos e apresentados por categorias temáticas, as quais foram surgindo e se estruturando a partir dos relatos, não tendo sido estabelecidas a priori. A análise mostrou que: 1) É preciso compreender a vivência de perda da mãe no início da vida como processo dinâmico, havendo inúmeras variáveis envolvidas em cada história individual, não se podendo determinar ou prever como a criança que perdeu a mãe será quando adulta; 2) Mostrou-se importante lidar com a experiência da perda e com a dor para poder ressignificá-las, enxergando-as de maneiras diferentes, e assim integrá-las à vida, diminuindo o medo de sentimentos negativos do passado retornarem; 3) Foi possível perceber que o comportamento de permanecer vinculado à mãe ajudou os participantes a lidar com a ausência desta e a redefinir este relacionamento, integrandoo em suas vidas, não da mesma forma como era quando estava viva, mas ainda como figura importante e significativa em suas histórias. Tendo como base estes três aspectos observados, foram apresentadas orientações a profissionais de saúde, familiares e pessoas que estão próximos a crianças e adultos que perderam suas mães em idade precoce. Este trabalho pode contribuir com reflexões no sentido de minimizar o estigma social em relação a crianças e adultos que perderam suas mães de maneira prematura. E, ainda, incentivar esforços para auxiliar pessoas enlutadas em direção a maior comunicação e expressão de sentimentos relacionados à perda por morte, acreditando que um acolhimento adequado pode ajudar a lidar com essa dor e crescer por meio dela. / The present work aims at comprehending the mourning in adults who have lost their mothers during childhood and how this experience can be resignified in other life stages. The loved persons death leads to a painful mourning and, in the case of children who have lost a parent, this suffering might get worse because they are still physically and emotionally dependent on their parents. Thus, it was intended to comprehend, from adult narrative, the loss experience in the childhood and the possibility of resignification in each individual life. We used the qualitative approach with inspiration in some aspects of the Approach Centered in the Person, theory developed by Carl Rogers. The interviews had a non-directive approach and were started with the question: how did you experience your mother loss? and were conducted taking in account what the participants considered as relevant issues. Six adults participated, three men and three women, ranging from 32 to 61 years of age, whose mothers died when they were between 5 and 12 years old. The collaborators were people who had knowledge about the study through divulgation and voluntarily wished to cooperate with the research. In the narrative comprehensive analysis, outstanding issues were categorized considering thematic points, which have stood out from the speeches since they were not previously established. The analysis showed that: 1) Mother loss in the beginning of life must be understood as a dynamic process, considering that there are many factors involved in each individual life. Therefore it is not possible to determine or foresee how the child who has lost his mother will be as an adult; 2) It was shown that it is important to face the loss and grief, in order to resignify and to perceive them by different forms, and consequently be able to integrate them to the life, reducing the fear of past negative feelings; 3) It was realized that the behavior of been kept attached to their mothers aids the participants to deal with such absence and to redefine this relationship, integrating it in their life. Although it is not just same way when their mothers were alive, it keeps meaningful and important figure in their own histories. Based on these three considerations, orientations were presented to health professionals, relatives and people who are near of bereaved children and adults who suffered from mothers loss at an early ages. This study can contribute with the reflection on a way to soften the social stigma of children and adults who have lost their mother prematurely. Moreover, it can encourage the assistance to bereaved people toward a larger communication and expression of the loss feelings, considering that an adequate care can help to deal with grief and can help to grow through this situation.

Esta pesquisa aborda o tema do exílio, com um recorte particular dessa experiência, a saber: as vicissitudes do luto. Tendo como base os fundamentos teóricos da psicanálise em intensão e em extensão, toma como exemplo histórico o exílio político dos argentinos durante a Ditadura Militar Argentina dos anos 1976-1983. O exílio é um acontecimento que pode ser pensado a partir de alguns conceitos da teoria freudiana e do ensino de Jacques Lacan, dentre eles: angústia, luto, ato e desejo. Os mesmos são analisados e correlacionados em nosso texto. Dois recortes demonstram as condições e as modalidades de elaboração do luto no exílio político. O primeiro procura recolher no testemunho singular de alguns exilados suas experiências nessa condição. As entrevistas aconteceram nas cidades de São Paulo e de Buenos Aires, tomando como exemplos exilados que ficaram no exílio e outros que retornaram à sua terra de origem. O segundo recorte diz respeito a um fenômeno social que, embora acontecendo na Argentina, teve ressonâncias no exílio: tratam-se das marchas realizadas pelas Madres e Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, todas as quintas-feiras, na praça que deu o nome a essas duas organizações. Verificamos que no exílio o trabalho do luto singular e particular se enlaça a um trabalho no coletivo que aponta para o restabelecimento da legalidade jurídica e do desejo, fraturadas durante esses anos. Todavia, problematizamos o significante mestre \'exilado\', pensando à luz da clínica psicanalítica, os conceitos de alienação e separação. / This research addresses the theme of exile, particularly focusing on the vicissitudes of mourning. Drawing on the fundamental premises of psychoanalysis both in intention and in extension, it points to the political exile of Argentineans during the 1976-1983 military dictatorship as a historical example. Exile is an event that can be thought of based on a few concepts of the Freudian theory and Jacques Lacan\'s teachings, among which: anguish, mourning, act and desire. These are analyzed and correlated in this work. Two portraits of reality show the conditions and ways to elaborate the mourning suffered in political exile. The first sought to distil from the singular testimonies of exiled people their experiences under this condition. Interviews were conducted in Sao Paulo, with people who remained in the country of asylum, and in Buenos Ayres with people who returned to their country of origin, Argentina. The second concerns a social phenomenon which, although having taken place in Argentina, had its echoes in the exile: the marches carried out by the Madres and Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo [Mothers and Grandmothers of May Square), every Thursday, in the square after which both organizations were named. It was verified that the work of singular, private mourning is intertwined with a collective work pointing to the restoration of the juridical legality as well as that of the desire, fractured during all those years. Nevertheless, the master significant \"exiled\" has been problematized, taking into consideration the concepts of alienation and separation in the light of the psychoanalytical clinic.

O presente trabalho investigou como ocorre a comunicação à criança da morte de um familiar próximo (pai, mãe ou irmãos). Os objetivos foram: verificar a adequação dessa comunicação ao nível de compreensão e desenvolvimento cognitivo da criança e compreender como a família colabora ou não para o processo de elaboração do luto infantil por meio das informações e sentimentos que compartilha com a criança ou esconde dela. O método utilizado foi o da pesquisa qualitativa, pela profundidade e vasta possibilidade de interpretações que essa abordagem possibilita, além de uma visão mais ampla do fenômeno abordado. Participaram desta pesquisa, responsáveis por crianças que sofreram a perda por morte de um parente próximo quando tinham entre dois e sete anos, aproximadamente. Os dados foram colhidos por meio de entrevistas abertas, por permitirem a flexibilidade necessária a cada caso particular. As entrevistas foram compreendidas a partir da identificação de categorias recorrentes no discurso dos entrevistados, com base em análise temática. Os resultados trazem a importância de uma comunicação aberta e clara com a criança, além de adequada a seus níveis de compreensão; salientam os benefícios de se compartilharem os sentimentos, apontando para o cuidado do comunicador para com a criança como uma via de mão dupla e, demonstram a força do apoio social da família extensa no período pós-morte. Conclui-se que, apesar de difícil, a comunicação da morte de um parente próximo à criança é imprescindível e deve ser revestida de alguns cuidados básicos por parte do comunicador, que deve ser alguém com quem a criança tenha fortes laços de afetividade. / The present work investigates how the communication of the death of a close relative (parents or siblings) to a child occurs. The objectives were to verify the adequacy of such communication to the understanding level and cognitive development of the child and to assess whether the family collaborates in the grieving process, through the information and feelings they share with or hide from the child. The method used is the qualitative research, in view of its depth and the vast possibility of interpretations that this approach allows, besides a wider vision of the phenomenon studied. Participants in this study were those responsible for the children who had suffered the loss, by death, of a close relative between the ages of two and seven, approximately. The data were collected in open interviews, because they allow for the flexibility necessary to each particular case. The interviews were understood through the identification of recurrent categories in the speech of the persons interviewed, according to the thematic analysis. The results pointed out the importance of an open and clear communication with the child, adjusted to her level of understanding. They stress the benefits of sharing emotion, showing that the relationship between communicator and child is a two-way channel and that the social support of the extensive family in the post-death period is very important. Finally, the communication of the death of a close relative to a child is essential, although difficult, and must be endeavored with the utmost care and sensitivity on the part of the communicator, who should be someone ages of two and seven, approximately. The data were collected in open interviews, because they allow for the flexibility necessary to each particular case. The interviews were understood through the identification of recurrent categories in the speech of the persons interviewed, according to the thematic analysis. The results pointed out the importance of an open and clear communication with the child, adjusted to her level of understanding. They stress the benefits of sharing emotion, showing that the relationship between communicator and child is a two-way channel and that the social support of the extensive family in the post-death period is very important. Finally, the communication of the death of a close relative to a child is essential, although difficult, and must be endeavored with the utmost care and sensitivity on the part of the communicator, e with strong affectivity bonds with the child.

Em todo o ser humano existe uma condição inata a desenvolver-se; no entanto, as condições externas podem dificultar que esse processo ocorra bem. Assim, para que um desenvolvimento emocional saudável aconteça, é necessário que exista um meio suficientemente bom, capaz de oferecer holding, para permitir a expressão espontânea e criativa da criança no mundo. Um dos acontecimentos que mobiliza intensamente as pessoas e que é passível de comprometer o seu bem-estar, é a morte de um ente querido. Para a criança que está em desenvolvimento, esse evento é ainda mais significativo, pois as angústias e tristezas surgidas no processo de luto podem refletir no desenvolvimento emocional, em especial quando a sua família sofreu o processo de perda de um filho. O luto dos pais pode influenciar no desenvolvimento emocional da criança e no modo como se processará o luto desta. Sendo assim, o presente estudo, por meio de uma metodologia clínica-qualitativa, objetivou analisar a vivência da criança que perdeu um irmão, e a repercussão dessa perda no seu desenvolvimento emocional conforme relacionada ao luto dos pais. Os participantes foram três famílias que perderam um filho por uma patologia e que tinham outro filho criança vivo. Os instrumentos utilizados foram entrevista e a aplicação do Procedimento de Desenhos de Famílias com Estórias (DF-E) com os pais, e o Teste da Casa-Árvore-Pessoa (HTP) e Teste das Fábulas com a criança, a fim de avaliar os seus psicodinamismos, bem como a estrutura familiar conforme influenciada pelo luto. Os resultados foram analisados sob uma perspectiva psicanalítica winnicottiana, por meio do método da livre inspeção do material, acrescido de contribuições contidas nos manuais do HTP e do Teste das Fábulas. Os resultados demonstraram que o trabalho de luto desenvolvido pelos pais influencia no modo como as crianças prosseguem com o seu luto e com seu desenvolvimento emocional. A perda de um irmão, em especial, desperta os sentimentos de rivalidade fraterna, o que problematiza a relação com o luto. As consequências das perdas inibem o viver criativo e espontâneo e obrigam a utilização de defesas para que seja possível continuar a viver. Os pais não conseguem atender as necessidades dos seus filhos e oferecer holding a eles, pois os sentimentos derivados das perdas inibem a sua capacidade criativa. Como consequência, eles não podem se adaptar à criatividade dos seus filhos e, assim, as crianças não conseguem ser espontâneas. Desse modo, existe um prejuízo na área da transicionalidade para ambos. Por meio do uso da criatividade, é possível viver a realidade externa, por mais dura que ela seja, proporcionando maneiras de lidar com as dificuldades e permitindo a expressão do verdadeiro self. A criatividade é, então, essencial para a elaboração do luto, por isso, se a capacidade de criar nos pais e nos filhos estiver comprometida, resta a eles negar os sentimentos derivados da experiência da perda de um ente querido. Assim, diante da dificuldade de se expressar e criar, os sentimentos derivados das perdas, nessas famílias, foram negados ou evitados, e o desenvolvimento emocional das crianças foi, então, prejudicado. / There is an innate tendency to self-development in every human being; however the environment can hinder this development. Therefore, the good enough environment, which provides holding to render possible the creative spontaneous expression of children, is necessary for the existence of their emotional development. Losing a loved one is one of the events that most affect and threaten people\'s well-being. For a child, this event and the sorrow that comes in its train are even more influential in their emotional development, especially when their family loses another child. Parents in morning influence the way that children mourn and the emotional development of the latter. This study, by means of clinical-qualitative methodology, aimed at analyzing the experience of children who lost a sibling and the consequences of the loss for his or her development according to their parent\'s grief. The research participants were three families that lost a child on account of a disease, and had another living child. The instruments used were interviews and the application of the Procedure Drawings of Families with Stories - (DF-E) according to its acronym in Portuguese - in the parents, and the application of the House-Tree-Person (HTP) and the Test of Fables in the children, in order to assess their psychodynamics as well as the family structure influenced by grief. The results were analyzed from a psychoanalytic Winnicott perspective, by means of the method of free material inspection, in addition to contributions contained in the manuals of the HTP and the Test of Fables. The results showed that the work of mourning made by the parents influences the way the children come to terms with their grief and undergo their emotional development. The loss of a sibling arouses feelings of sibling rivalry, which complicate their relationship with mourning. The consequences of the losses inhibit spontaneous, creative living and require the use of psychological defense mechanisms so that the family members can continue to live. The parents cannot meet the needs of their children and provide them with holding, because the feelings derived from the losses hamper their creative ability. As a consequence, they cannot adapt to the creativity of their children, thus the latter do not succeed in being spontaneous. Therefore, both are harmed as to experiencing transitionality. By means of being creative, living the outside reality can be possible, however hard it may be, providing ways to deal with difficulties and allowing the expression of the true self. Therefore, creativity is essential for the grief process; if the parents\' and children\'s abilities to create are impaired, their only option is to deny the feelings derived from the experience of losing a loved one. Before the difficulty in expressing themselves and creating, the feelings derived from the losses, in these families, were denied and avoided, consequently, the children\'s emoemotional development was harmed.

Esta pesquisa aborda o tema do exílio, com um recorte particular dessa experiência, a saber: as vicissitudes do luto. Tendo como base os fundamentos teóricos da psicanálise em intensão e em extensão, toma como exemplo histórico o exílio político dos argentinos durante a Ditadura Militar Argentina dos anos 1976-1983. O exílio é um acontecimento que pode ser pensado a partir de alguns conceitos da teoria freudiana e do ensino de Jacques Lacan, dentre eles: angústia, luto, ato e desejo. Os mesmos são analisados e correlacionados em nosso texto. Dois recortes demonstram as condições e as modalidades de elaboração do luto no exílio político. O primeiro procura recolher no testemunho singular de alguns exilados suas experiências nessa condição. As entrevistas aconteceram nas cidades de São Paulo e de Buenos Aires, tomando como exemplos exilados que ficaram no exílio e outros que retornaram à sua terra de origem. O segundo recorte diz respeito a um fenômeno social que, embora acontecendo na Argentina, teve ressonâncias no exílio: tratam-se das marchas realizadas pelas Madres e Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, todas as quintas-feiras, na praça que deu o nome a essas duas organizações. Verificamos que no exílio o trabalho do luto singular e particular se enlaça a um trabalho no coletivo que aponta para o restabelecimento da legalidade jurídica e do desejo, fraturadas durante esses anos. Todavia, problematizamos o significante mestre \'exilado\', pensando à luz da clínica psicanalítica, os conceitos de alienação e separação. / This research addresses the theme of exile, particularly focusing on the vicissitudes of mourning. Drawing on the fundamental premises of psychoanalysis both in intention and in extension, it points to the political exile of Argentineans during the 1976-1983 military dictatorship as a historical example. Exile is an event that can be thought of based on a few concepts of the Freudian theory and Jacques Lacan\'s teachings, among which: anguish, mourning, act and desire. These are analyzed and correlated in this work. Two portraits of reality show the conditions and ways to elaborate the mourning suffered in political exile. The first sought to distil from the singular testimonies of exiled people their experiences under this condition. Interviews were conducted in Sao Paulo, with people who remained in the country of asylum, and in Buenos Ayres with people who returned to their country of origin, Argentina. The second concerns a social phenomenon which, although having taken place in Argentina, had its echoes in the exile: the marches carried out by the Madres and Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo [Mothers and Grandmothers of May Square), every Thursday, in the square after which both organizations were named. It was verified that the work of singular, private mourning is intertwined with a collective work pointing to the restoration of the juridical legality as well as that of the desire, fractured during all those years. Nevertheless, the master significant \"exiled\" has been problematized, taking into consideration the concepts of alienation and separation in the light of the psychoanalytical clinic.

SIGNIFICANCE: Complicated and persistent grief reactions afflict 10% of bereaved individuals, and are associated with severe disruptions of functioning. These maladaptive patterns were tentatively included in the DSM-5 as Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder (PCBD). The condition has been studied using network analysis, showing how symptoms activate and reinforce each other into psychopathological configurations. This approach offers unique insights to inform clinical practice and define psychopathology. Despite these strengths, previous studies were based on self-report information from a single archival dataset. To overcome these limitations, we collected clinical data from a community sample of newly bereaved individuals who suffered loss of a spouse (N=305). Symptoms of PCBD from semi-structured clinical interviews were analyzed via a network approach. METHODS: Ising model Networks of PCBD were generated from symptoms diagnosed at 3 months, 14 months, and 25 months after the loss. Comorbidities with DSM-5 symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder, and PTSD were also explored. The role of risk factors was also assessed. Lastly, longitudinal VAR networks were generated combining the three temporal observations. RESULTS: Symptoms from the Social/Identity PCBD cluster were central in the network configurations. Yearning and Emotional Pain appeared less strongly interconnected compared to previous research. Meaninglessness activated a cascade of further PCBD symptoms over time. Loneliness, difficulties trusting others and meaninglessness bridged with comorbid depressive and trauma symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Symptoms related to loss of identity and meaninglessness were identified as salient candidates for targeted interventions. The network approach showed potential for an improved understanding of psychopathological distress reactions following potentially traumatic events.

The purpose of this dissertation was to examine coping and outcomes of grief for atheist individuals during bereavement. The landscape of grief research has significantly changed since the days of Freud, and widely accepted stage theory models of grief have not held up to empirical review (Wortman & Silver, 1989). Emerging research examines factors that may lead to positive changes as a result of loss or trauma, known as posttraumatic growth. However, atheist individuals continue to be an understudied group in the psychological and bereavement literature, while people with religious beliefs continue to receive the most focus (Brewster, Robinson, Sandil, Esposito, & Geiger, 2014; D’Andrea & Sprenger, 2007). This study explored how cognitive (e.g., assumptions about the world), existential (e.g., meaning), and behavioral (active and emotional) coping methods are associated with posttraumatic growth, complicated grief, and psychological distress in a believer and atheist sample after the death of a close friend or family member. Specifically, posttraumatic growth, complicated grief, and psychological distress were regressed onto the three types of coping (cognitive, existential, and behavioral) using a hierarchical regression analysis. The first analysis controlled for demographic variables and the second analysis consisted of matched groups on demographic variables that were found to be associated with grief outcomes in prior research (e.g., Bonanno et al., 2008; Bonanno, Galea, Bucciarelli, & Vlahov, 2007). Exploratory bivariate correlations were conducted to assess interrelations between the variables of interest. Additionally, MANOVA was used to assess differences in demographic variables between the believer and atheist sample. Significant cognitive, existential, and behavioral coping methods were found to be associated with posttraumatic growth, complicated grief, and psychological distress. Furthermore, the endorsement of a belief in God(s) was significantly and positively associated with posttraumatic growth, but also significantly and positively associated with complicated grief and psychological distress. Results from this study can be used to identify appropriate clinical strategies for counselors working with grieving atheists, and will deepen the breadth of literature on bereavement and coping within diverse populations. Limitations and directions for future research are also discussed.

This thesis offers an analysis of the possible harm of death, posing three questions: Who is the subject of the harm? What is the nature of the harm? And, when does the harm take place? Epicurus demonstrates on hedonistic grounds that given the irreversible annihilation of the subject and the impossibility of experience, death cannot harm the one who dies at any time. The experience condition is central to this claim, stating that experience is necessary for harm. Despite the strength of the Epicurean inspired No- Subject Thesis, it remains counter to pretheoretical intuitions regarding the harmfulness of death. This thesis proposes an alternative justification for the belief that death is harmful by extending the possible subjects of harm to include the bereaved. It is my view that the No-Subject Thesis successfully shows that death is not harmful to the one who dies, and in support of the Epicurean position, it will be defended against variations of Thomas Nagel’s antithetical position. Nagel’s view is motivated by the belief that death is bad because it deprives the deceased of some good he or she could have had, had death taken place at a later time. Criticisms of the Deprivation Thesis relate to the effectiveness of counterexamples to the experience condition, and the challenge of the temporal location problem, given that we will assume, along with Epicurus, that death annihilates the subject. However, this thesis argues that it is a restricted understanding of the possible subjects of harm that causes the counter-intuitive conclusion of the No-Subject Thesis. By extending the possible bearers of harm to include the bereaved, and characterising the nature of the harm as the loss experienced by the bereaved, one can posit an unproblematic account of the nature and subject of the harm of death. Indeed, by identifying a living person as the subject of harm, the experience condition can be satisfied. Furthermore, a clearly delineated temporal location of the harm can be identified insofar as the bereaved are harmed from the time at which he or she learns of the death of the loved other. However, it will be argued that the harm diminishes over time, reflecting the experience of the bereaved that he or she can recover after the loss of the beloved. A defence of this position will be offered, responding to the Epicurean claim that the death of a loved other does not constitute a significant loss in virtue of the belief that individual subjects are replaceable. By extending the scope of the possible harm of death to account for the social context within which death occurs, one can retain the logical strength of the Epicurean inspired No-Subject Thesis, and yet justify the intuition that death remains a bad thing for the bereaved, giving rational grounds for fearing death in terms of social deprivation.

This paper addresses the causes and effects of grief within Homer's Iliad. In addition, this paper argues that error, both committed and suffered, is the primary cause of grief, and that grief is particularly transformative in regard to Achilles, both in his motivations and his physicality.