A thesis submitted in fulfillment for the degree of doctor of Philosophy in Management from Witwatersrand Business School at the University of Witwatersrand, December 2016 / Mining is an activity that many African countries depend on, and Africa’s export-oriented mining and quarrying is driven primarily by the commodity hunger of the world’s largest economies. In developing countries commodity exports form the most significant portion of exports. Although economic benefits are present because of mining activities, due to the scale and destructive nature of these mining activities some negative impacts are felt on the environment in terms of deforestation, land degradation, toxic water, and loss of farm lands to make way for mining activities. Using Botswana and Zambia as cases due to their institutional differences, mineral production and variety of ore, the study was conducted to see how mining activities affect communities in 216 households. Using a case approach, three primary sources of data in the form of household surveys, focus group discussions and the key informant interviews were used to capture data needed to answer the main research questions. Empirical research revealed that the socio-economic impacts of mining are mining induced displacement and resettlement (MIDR), the environment, infrastructure and social amenities, health, and the social fabric. The quantitative findings from the Relative Importance Index (RII) indicated that infrastructure and social amenities was the most important factor affecting communities, other important factors were health, and employment. Qualitative results highlighted negative environmental impacts as a result of a lack of law enforcement in Zambia, a fragmented social fabric in both Botswana and Zambia, and an overall improvement in health facilities more so in Zambia than Botswana. In addition, Zambia had a presence of mafia activity in the form of Jerabos and Chondos whereas Botswana had no reported evidence of mafia like activities. Theoretically, the study provided a new dimension of analysis of socio-economic impact which included the macro and meso-level as a better method of assessment of mining impact in communities. Through the empirical findings, a theory was abstracted to position the law as a key determinant of the quality of institutions and not just as one of the listed factors that affect institutional quality. The findings showed that the law greatly influences state capacity to promote economic development. A major difference in mining law in Zambia and Botswana is government’s involvement in the implementation of the law. Botswana shows evidence of more government influence on mining operations than Zambia which reduces the incidence of rent seeking behavior in Botswana, and shows that Botswana has better institutional quality than Zambia. However, global legal practices show that both countries require legal reform to improve their institutional quality and mitigate negative mining impacts. Legal frameworks for robust environmental protection, community engagement, and compensation are needed in both Botswana, and Zambia. Institutional quality is based on the extent to which the law is understood by all stakeholders and implemented. / MT2017

Stakeholder involvement in strategic planning: a strategy to mitigate the effects of HIV and AIDS on secondary education in Botswana. This study explores the involvement of stakeholders in strategic planning to mitigate the effect of HIV and AIDS in secondary education in Botswana. The prevalence of HIV and AIDS-related illness and deaths is high in Botswana and affects both teachers and learners. Education provision has been affected through increased mortality and morbidity and increased absenteeism which affect education-related personnel and the demand for education has been reduced due to growing numbers of orphaned and vulnerable children as a consequence of parent/guardian mortality and morbidity related to HIV and AIDS. The problem was investigated by means of a literature review and an empirical inquiry which combined quantitative and qualitative data collection. Based on the findings, in addition to medical and other interventions, an education management approach is required to mitigate the effects of HIV and AIDS on secondary education in Botswana. The strategies of coping, caring and preventing have been effective in this regard. Some internal stakeholders of the Department of Secondary Education (DSE) are not meaningfully involved in strategic planning. Similarly, most of the selected external stakeholders were not involved in the DSE HIV and AIDS strategic plan. Both external and internal stakeholders should be involved at all stages of planning. Furthermore, inducement-contribution exchanges and teacher credibility should be considered in a strategic plan. To improve the current DSE strategic plan, a stakeholder involvement model to involve internal and external stakeholders was designed. Based on this model and the above findings, recommendations for practice and suggestions for future research are made. / Educational Studies / D.Ed.(Educational Management)

The education reform efforts in Botswana have focused predominantly on teacher preparation, recruitment and compensation. Recruitment efforts have resulted in a significant number of expatriates working with indigenous teachers in many schools. However, as the schools are currently upgraded and restructured, the quality of the working relationships forged between indigenous and expatriate teachers represents one vital aspect in the reform effort that has gone almost unattended. Many teachers have become dissatisfied and concerned about these relationships, despite compensation and preparation. A decisive first step in attending to these relationships lies in understanding how they develop. The aim of this exploratory study was to identify and describe factors related to the development of working relationships between indigenous and expatriate teachers and illustrate how those factors contribute to the development of these relationships. The study employed a micropolitical perspective and through phenomenological interviews, observation and document analysis, indicated that cultural differences in language and communication, regard for time, handling of student discipline, work ethics and professionalism along with ambiguity and uncertainty, professional and interpersonal obligations, indigenous to expatriate teacher ratio and the interplay of micropolitics are related to the development of these relationships. Results, however, are specific to one school context and should not be generalized. The study recommends management strategies such as provision of programmes for cultural exchange, communication mode standardization, a dean of discipline system, faculty building and further research to redress the situation. / Further Teacher Education / M.Ed.

The aim of the study was to investigate motivation, job satisfaction and attitudes of nurses in the public health services of Botswana. The objective was to discover how nurses felt about a wide range of variables in their work environment and ultimately to distil them into what they conceived as the mainstay motivators, job satisfiers and positive attitudes. The non pariel (unrivalled, unique) role of the government in creating both the hardware and the software of national health services was acknowledged and recognised with a particular reference to the primacy it placed on developing the human resources in the form of nurses, in order to realize the goals of administering the public health services efficiently and effectively. It was noted that nurses were the change agents and the axis in promoting quality standards of healthcare but in partnership with the government, which must be seen to be responsive and proactive in discharging its fiduciary responsibilities, in respect of both the content and the context of nurses’ occupational ambience. For the purposes of constructing a database from which both the government and the nurses can draw, the most salient thematic details of the theories of motivation, job satisfaction and attitudes were studied and examined and were used as a scaffolding for the empirical survey of nurses. Nine hundred questionnaires were distributed to both registered and enrolled nurses with a minimum of two years work experience in the public health sector and 702 of these were returned constituting a return rate of 78%. The findings indicated that a majority of nurses enjoyed job satisfaction in certain areas of their work namely autonomy, participating in decision-making, choice of type of nursing, change of wards or departments or work units, interpersonal relationships amongst nurses themselves and between nurses and their supervisors. Nurses also perceived the hospital as an environment in which they could continually learn and they were moreover satisfied with the nursing job or the work itself. The other end of the spectrum revealed an overwhelming majority of 92.2% of nurses who were dissatisfied with the level of pay and 88.5% who were not happy with the fringe benefits including the provision of accommodation. Working conditions were viewed as generally disliked by 67.3% of the nurses. Low pay, workload, lack of viii recognition for outstanding performance and or delayed promotional chances were singled out as being particularly disliked by 67.2%, 64.9%, 42.6% and 44.4% of the nurses respectively. Interviews held with 31 nurses yielded similar results. The research further showed that the most important motivators to nurses were dominated by competitive salary which was mentioned by 80.9% of the respondents, attractive or sufficient working conditions which were stated by 71.2% of the nurses, opportunity for continuous education which was rated by 63.8% of the nursing candidates, reduced workload which was claimed by 59.3% of the nursing cadres, opportunity for the recognition of outstanding performance and opportunity for promotion which were scored by 54.1% and 53.4% of the nurse respectively. Job satisfiers were also represented by competitive salary which received 76.1% of the nurses’ votes. Risk allowance occupied the second position with 69.1% and competitive working conditions were awarded a third ranking by 68.2% of the nurses. Those nurses who derived job satisfaction from the fact of each nursing shift being manned by an adequate number of nurses accounted for 63.1% of the sample. Competitive fringe benefits attracted 60.1% of the nurses. Opportunity to attend workshops and the need for high morale in nursing team-work were chosen as job satisfiers by 53.7% and 49.6% of the nurses respectively. In the section on recommendations the government was exhorted to invoke corrective or remedial measures in view of the detailed exegesis of the satisfactions and dissatisfactions in the nurses’ work environment and the ensuing problematique (doubtful, questionable) of raising the standards of health care in the public health services. Living up to these sanguine expectations should be the cherished longterm vision of the government if it is to meet and quench the soaring aspirations of its modernizing society for quality health care delivery and the escalating needs of the nurses. / Public Administration / D.P.A.

Museums and schools evolved as the definition of the concept of education to describe a lifelong process of developing knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that take place not only in the classroom, but also in a variety of formal and informal contexts and settings. In order to fulfil and extend the potential of the partnership, museum educators and school teachers should be assisted to develop a comprehensive understanding of the nature of the museum-school collaboration. They should learn the difference between museums and classrooms. When the Botswana National Museum was established in 1968, the Botswana government aspired to avail information relating to Botswana customs, indigenous knowledge system and values to Botswana‘s future citizens, with the hope that the information and artefacts collected at the time would retell the story of Botswana to learners and the public alike. The Botswana National Museum, through its educational programmes, has the capability to help educate learners; make teaching and learning an exciting undertaking; and provide the opportunities for hands-on activities and interaction with real objects. In order to address the research question posed for this study, the researcher conducted open-ended interviews with a sample comprising 40 participants: 10 teachers, 10 learners, 10 museum employees and 10 curriculum developers. The data collected from the interviews were decoded and presented in narrative form. The responses were presented using three identified categories: the curriculum development process in Botswana; the typical learner activities in the classroom and in the Botswana National Museum; and collaboration between the Botswana National Museum and schools. The data analysis revealed that the curriculum development process in Botswana was exclusively done by curriculum developers. Learners, teachers and museum employees were not involved. The Botswana National Museum‘s education programmes are not familiar to all role-players. All role-players were positive regarding a possible collaboration with the Botswana National Museum. Generic and specific recommendations were put forward to this end. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Didactics)

The phenomenon of HIV discordance has been in existence for a long time along with HIV. However, very limited attention has been given to HIV discordance. This phenomenological study aimed at gaining a deeper understanding on the lived experiences of sero-discordant couples in Botswana. Reports show that discordance in Botswana is around 17%. The main objectives of this study were to identify HIV discordant couples living in Botswana and explore their knowledge and understanding of the situation, explore the psychological, social and sexual experiences of the HIV discordant couples and determine its impact in their lives, and examine the meaning they attach to such experiences and challenges they face as well as their coping strategies. A qualitative phenomenological approach using face to face in-depth interviews was used to explore and describe meanings and experience as lived by the HIV discordant couples. The study sample consisted of forty-six (N=46) (twenty-nine (n=29) females and seventeen (n=17) males) participants selected using purposive sampling from three cities in Botswana. The Inclusion criteria were that participants should be aged 21 years and above; with no known diagnosis of mental illness; having been in a discordant relationship for at least six months at the time of data collection; living in Botswana and willing to participate in the study. The findings were that there are three forms of discordance, which are: discordant unaware which are couples who went into the relation unaware of their HIV status. Discordant aware; those who got into the relationship already knowing each other’s HIV status and discordantly discordant which are those with differing HIV status and differing motives of going into the relationship. These are the couples that conceal their status from one another. The results revealed intense emotional/psychological, sexual and social stresses as experienced by couples. HIV discordant goes through three phases of initial shock, conflict and resolution. The researcher recommends the OPEN DESK MODEL to be integrated in the health facilities to encompass the concept of a family or couple and as a unit. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

The study encompasses the reconstruction of the Iron Age sequence around the Limpopo River floodplain on Basinghall Farm during the second millennium AD. A survey uncovered 75 Iron Age sites, including three Moritsane and ten Toutswe facies sites for the Middle Iron Age and two Early Moloko, 16 Middle Moloko (Letsibogo facies) and 43 Late Moloko grain bin platform sites for the Late Iron Age. The local settlement sequence, which is based primarily on a ceramic analysis of surficial and excavated collections, is corroborated by radiocarbon dates, a glass bead sequence and comparative data from previous studies. The borders of the Toutswe chiefdom are shown to have extended 100 km to the south, while the Eiland sequence is refined to include an Eiland, a Moritsane and a redefined Broadhurst facies. New light is also shed on the local Moloko sequence and its correlation with historical Tswana groups in south-eastern Botswana. / Anthropology & Archaeology / M.A. (Archaeology)

The study investigated knowledge, attitudes and vaccination status of registered nurses regarding prevention and control of hepatitis B (HB). An analytical, cross-sectional study was conducted, and data was collected using self-administered questionnaires. 53.0% of the respondents (n=219) had good knowledge and 96.3% had positive attitudes regarding HB prevention and control. 86.8% had received at least 1 dose of the HB vaccine, but only 54.7% had received the 3 doses for complete vaccination. A positive attitude score was a significant predictor of HB vaccination uptake (OR=1.424, p=0.003). Female registered nurses were 3.479 times (95% CI: 1.495-8.098; p=0.004) more likely to be vaccinated than male registered nurses. Registered nurses are aware that hepatitis B virus infection can be prevented by a safe and effective vaccine, however, there is need to improve awareness and encourage complete HB vaccination uptake among all registered nurses to ensure their protection against the risk of HBV infection. / Health Studies / M. P. H. (Health Studies)

The study encompasses the reconstruction of the Iron Age sequence around the Limpopo River floodplain on Basinghall Farm during the second millennium AD. A survey uncovered 75 Iron Age sites, including three Moritsane and ten Toutswe facies sites for the Middle Iron Age and two Early Moloko, 16 Middle Moloko (Letsibogo facies) and 43 Late Moloko grain bin platform sites for the Late Iron Age. The local settlement sequence, which is based primarily on a ceramic analysis of surficial and excavated collections, is corroborated by radiocarbon dates, a glass bead sequence and comparative data from previous studies. The borders of the Toutswe chiefdom are shown to have extended 100 km to the south, while the Eiland sequence is refined to include an Eiland, a Moritsane and a redefined Broadhurst facies. New light is also shed on the local Moloko sequence and its correlation with historical Tswana groups in south-eastern Botswana. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Archaeology)

The phenomenon of HIV discordance has been in existence for a long time along with HIV. However, very limited attention has been given to HIV discordance. This phenomenological study aimed at gaining a deeper understanding on the lived experiences of sero-discordant couples in Botswana. Reports show that discordance in Botswana is around 17%. The main objectives of this study were to identify HIV discordant couples living in Botswana and explore their knowledge and understanding of the situation, explore the psychological, social and sexual experiences of the HIV discordant couples and determine its impact in their lives, and examine the meaning they attach to such experiences and challenges they face as well as their coping strategies. A qualitative phenomenological approach using face to face in-depth interviews was used to explore and describe meanings and experience as lived by the HIV discordant couples. The study sample consisted of forty-six (N=46) (twenty-nine (n=29) females and seventeen (n=17) males) participants selected using purposive sampling from three cities in Botswana. The Inclusion criteria were that participants should be aged 21 years and above; with no known diagnosis of mental illness; having been in a discordant relationship for at least six months at the time of data collection; living in Botswana and willing to participate in the study. The findings were that there are three forms of discordance, which are: discordant unaware which are couples who went into the relation unaware of their HIV status. Discordant aware; those who got into the relationship already knowing each other’s HIV status and discordantly discordant which are those with differing HIV status and differing motives of going into the relationship. These are the couples that conceal their status from one another. The results revealed intense emotional/psychological, sexual and social stresses as experienced by couples. HIV discordant goes through three phases of initial shock, conflict and resolution. The researcher recommends the OPEN DESK MODEL to be integrated in the health facilities to encompass the concept of a family or couple and as a unit. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)