The present dissertation research has three purposes: the first one is to predict anthropogenic deforestation caused by small farmers firstly using only pathways of past land cover change and secondly using demographic, socioeconomic and land cover data at the farm level. The second purpose is to compare the explanatory and predictive capacity of both approaches at identifying areas at high risk of deforestation among small farms in Rondõnia, Brazil. The third purpose is to test the assumptions of stationary probabilities and homogeneous subjects, both commonly used assumptions in predictive stochastic models applied to small farmers' deforestation decisions. This study uses the following data: household surveys, maps, satellite images and their land cover classification at the pixel level, and pathways of past land cover change for each farm. These data are available for a panel sample of farms in three municipios in Rondõnia, Brazil (Alto Paraiso, Nova União, and Rolim de Moura) and cover a ten-year period of study (1992-2002). Pathways of past land cover change are graphic representations in the form of flow charts that depict Land Cover Change (LCC) in each farm during the ten-year period of study. Pathways were constructed using satellite images, survey data and maps, and a set of interviews performed on a sub-sample of 70 farms. A panel data analysis of the estimated empirical probabilities was conducted to test for subject and time effects using a Fixed Group Effects Model (FGEM), specifically the Least Square Dummy Variable (LSDV1) fixed effects technique. Finally, the two predictive modeling approaches are compared. The first modeling approach predicts future LCC using only past land cover change data in the form of empirical transitional probabilities of LCC obtained from pathways of past LCC. These empirical probabilities are used in a LSDV1 for fixed–group effects, a LSDV1 for fixed-time effects, and an Ordinary Least Square model (OLS) for the pooled sample. Results from these models are entered in a modified Markov chain model's matrix multiplication. The second modeling approach predicts future LCC using socio-demographic and economic survey variables at the household level. The survey data is used to perform a multinomial logit regression model to predict the LC class of each pixel. In order to compare the explanatory and predictive capacity of both modeling approaches, LCC predictions at the pixel level are summarized in terms of percentage of cells in which future LC was predicted correctly. Percentage of correct predicted land cover class is compared against actual pixel classification from satellite images. The presence of differences among farmers in the LSDV1-fixed group effect by farmer suggests that small farmers are not a homogeneous group in term of their probabilities of LCC and that further classification of farmers into homogeneous subgroups will depict better their LCC decisions. Changes in the total area of landholdings proved a stronger influence in farmer's LCC decisions in their main property (primary lot) when compared to changes in the area of the primary lot. Panel data analysis of the LCC empirical transition probabilities (LSDV1 fixed time effects model) does not find enough evidence to prefer the fixed time effects model when compared to a Ordinary Least Square (OLS) pooled version of the probabilities. When applying the results of the panel data analysis to a modified markov chain model the LSDV1-farmer model provided a slightly better accuracy (59.25% accuracy) than the LSDV1-time and the OLS-pooled models (57.54% and 57.18%, respectively). The main finding for policy and planning purposes is that owners type 1—with stable total landholdings over time—tend to preserve forest with a much higher probability (0.9033) than owner with subdividing or expanding properties (probs. of 0.0013 and 0.0030). The main implication for policy making and planning is to encourage primary forest preservation, given that the Markov chain analysis shows that primary forest changes into another land cover, it will never go back to this original land cover class. Policy and planning recommendations are provided to encourage owner type 1 to continue their pattern of high forest conservation rates. Some recommendations include: securing land titling, providing health care and alternative sources of income for the OT1's family members and elderly owners to remain in the lot. Future research is encouraged to explore spatial autocorrelation in the pixel's probabilities of land cover change, effects of local policies and macro-economic variables in the farmer's LCC decisions. / Ph. D.

Deforestation and climate change is a global concern and humans live in unsustainable ways. One reason to this is rooted in the increased disconnection to nature. This disconnection originates from a Westernized view of nature, which has its roots in colonialism, industrialization, religion, and capitalism. Research has shown that the disconnection with nature is one of the key factors to explain the global climate crisis. The need to reconnect to our natural world is crucial to be able to decrease negative impact on the planet, such as deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Meanwhile, many Indigenous cultures consider nature to be a living being, which we are connected to, and also regard themselves as stewards of nature. Being and feeling connected to nature is related to increased environmental concern, pro-environmental behavior and nature relatedness. Studies show that ancestral Indigenous knowledge could help to prevent negative impacts on nature and reduce loss of biodiversity and deforestation. However Indigenous peoples are still being overlooked, and their knowledge is considered less valuable. The Kichwa Indigenous Peoples of Sarayaku, in Ecuador, have introduced the declaration Kawsak Sacha, the living forest, which considers nature to be a living being with its own rights. The declaration was introduced in 2018 with the purpose to live in harmony with nature, and to stop deforestation, oil extraction and mining. This study aimed to research the views of Kawsak Sacha, Indigenous peoples’ views of nature and whether this view of nature could be a possible pathway to decrease deforestation in the Amazon rainforest. This study aimed to include Indigenous peoples’ perspectives and voices, this was done through interviews to learn and understand more about their perspectives. The study demonstrates the importance of acknowledging Indigenous knowledge in academia, and environmental decision making. It also shows that learning from Indigenous peoples’ knowledges and views of nature, could be a pathway for Westernized societies to reconnect to nature and that Kawsak Sacha could be an inspiration for other countries to include Indigenous perspectives and knowledge in environmental decision making.

[pt] Questões relacionadas ao meio ambiente e sustentabilidade estão se tornando, a cada vez mais, temas de preocupação no comércio internacional, com movimentos de países ou blocos como União Europeia, Estados Unidos e Reino Unido. A China, um dos maiores atores no comércio internacional e o principal parceiro comercial do Brasil, ainda não deu indicações de restrições ou imposição de tarifas para produtos não sustentáveis. Mas o país passa por mudanças em direção a uma atuação mais sustentável e a busca pela construção de uma Civilização Ecológica, o que pode ter impactos para a sua política comercial. Essa dissertação tem como objetivo analisar as políticas de uma China mais verde e os movimentos do setor privado chinês em direção a uma atuação mais sustentável, de modo a entender os possíveis impactos para o comércio sino-brasileiro. / [en] Issues related to environment and sustainability are increasingly becoming topics of concern in international trade, with movements by countries or blocs such as the European Union, United States and the United Kingdom. China, one of the biggest players in international trade and Brazil s main trading partner, has not yet given indications of restrictions or imposition of tariffs on unsustainable products. But the country is undergoing changes towards more sustainable actions and the search for the construction of an Ecological Civilization, which may have impacts on its commercial policy. This dissertation aims to analyze the policies of a greener China and the movements of the Chinese private sector towards more sustainable operations, in order to understand the possible impacts on Sino-Brazilian trade.

Information on deforestation and forest management is limited due to lack of understanding as to how socioeconomic factors affect deforestation. Without adequate data, it is difficult to manage deforestation; particularly in Chipuriro where deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate. This research was carried out to address the problem. Surveys and landsat images were used to collect data. To quantify deforestation, images were processed using Geographical Information System. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was used to deduce the relationship between socioeconomic factors and deforestation. Socioeconomic factors were obtained through household surveys and focus group discussions. Results indicated high rates of deforestation in Ward 18 (4.7% per annum) while in Ward 16 woodland cover increased throughout the study period (7.7% per annum). Population growth with its demand on fuel wood, settlement and agricultural land caused a significant decrease in woodland cover in Ward 18. Plantations increased the area under woodlands in Ward 16. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

In this thesis we see two new approaches to compose tree transducers and more general to fuse functional programs. The first abroach is based on initial algebras. We prove a new variant of the acid rain theorem for mutually recursive functions where the build function is substituted by a concrete functor. Moreover, we give a symmetric form (i.e. consumer and producer have the same syntactic form) of our new acid rain theorem where fusion is composition in a category and thus in particular associative. Applying this to compose top-down tree transducers yields the same result (on a syntactic level) as the classical top-down tree transducer composition. The second approach is based on free monads and monad transformers. In the same way as monoids are used in the theory of character string automata, we use monads in the theory of tree transducers. We generalize the notion of a tree transducer defining the monadic transducer, and we prove an according fusion theorem. Moreover, we prove that homomorphic monadic transducers are semantically equivalent. The latter makes it possible to compose syntactic classes of tree transducers (or particular functional programs) by simply composing endofunctors.

The main objective of this study is to evaluate climate change mitigation strategies in the forestry and energy sectors in the SADC with emphasis on the DRC and the RSA. This study is evaluative and cross-sectional. Its results were got through interviews of 56 key informants using the interview guide, and four focus group discussions in the DRC based on the focus group guide. The non-probability sample, mainly the purposive sample and the snowballing sampling were used. After the data analysis, the following results were found: In terms of the strategies for fighting drivers of deforestation both in the DRC and in RSA, it was revealed that the DRC focuses more on the REDD+ projects and NGO activities while the RSA protects its small existing natural forests through Acts, laws, advanced research and establishment of commercial plantations. The results which are related to the contribution of REDD programmes and NGOs to climate change mitigation in the RSA and the DRC have revealed that there are no REDD programmes in the RSA for carbon stock. In the DRC, the NOVACEL REDD+ pilot project has a carbon stock of 60 000 tons which continues to grow with 8 tons of CO2 /ha/year; 210 tons/ha/year on the left side of the Congo River, and on the right side 195 tons/ha/year is generated by the Isangi Geographically Integrated REDD+ pilot project. The WCS Mambasa Forestry REDD+ pilot project has 230 tons/ha/year, while 16 000 tons of CO2/year are stocked under the Luki REDD+ pilot project. The Eco-Makala and Equatorial REDD+ pilot projects have not yet estimated their carbon stocks. Regarding the involvement of the civil society in activities of climate change mitigation in the DRC, people are more involved in REDD’s alternative activities which are funded by the projects. However, in the RSA, people are used as labour in commercial plantations. The RSA derives its major energy from coal (94%) but the DRC has a high potential in hydropower that can generate up to 100 000 MGW. On the use of remote sensing, both the DRC and the RSA employ remote sensing but the RSA has a Spatial Agency while the DRC does not / College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / D. Litt. et Phil. (Environmental Science)

Information on deforestation and forest management is limited due to lack of understanding as to how socioeconomic factors affect deforestation. Without adequate data, it is difficult to manage deforestation; particularly in Chipuriro where deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate. This research was carried out to address the problem. Surveys and landsat images were used to collect data. To quantify deforestation, images were processed using Geographical Information System. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was used to deduce the relationship between socioeconomic factors and deforestation. Socioeconomic factors were obtained through household surveys and focus group discussions. Results indicated high rates of deforestation in Ward 18 (4.7% per annum) while in Ward 16 woodland cover increased throughout the study period (7.7% per annum). Population growth with its demand on fuel wood, settlement and agricultural land caused a significant decrease in woodland cover in Ward 18. Plantations increased the area under woodlands in Ward 16. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

In this thesis we see two new approaches to compose tree transducers and more general to fuse functional programs. The first abroach is based on initial algebras. We prove a new variant of the acid rain theorem for mutually recursive functions where the build function is substituted by a concrete functor. Moreover, we give a symmetric form (i.e. consumer and producer have the same syntactic form) of our new acid rain theorem where fusion is composition in a category and thus in particular associative. Applying this to compose top-down tree transducers yields the same result (on a syntactic level) as the classical top-down tree transducer composition. The second approach is based on free monads and monad transformers. In the same way as monoids are used in the theory of character string automata, we use monads in the theory of tree transducers. We generalize the notion of a tree transducer defining the monadic transducer, and we prove an according fusion theorem. Moreover, we prove that homomorphic monadic transducers are semantically equivalent. The latter makes it possible to compose syntactic classes of tree transducers (or particular functional programs) by simply composing endofunctors.

Global climate change is one of the defining issues of the 21st century. The phenomenon of natural climate variation being pushed beyond normal ranges has been fueled largely by industrial activities and those which support them (i.e. land-use change and the over-exploitation of natural resources). The urgency is well established with reports demonstrating an increased occurrence of rare, highly damaging weather events, and shifts in the natural range of species. The necessity of action on climate change has resulted in the development of novel global initiatives designed to address the problem across global and regional scales. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is emblematic of this new wave of conservation strategy. It brings together parties which are often seen as opposed on environmental issues in collaborative environmental practise. This thesis explores the development of REDD+ as an effective and equitable solutions to this problem. REDD+ is a policy architecture designed for global deployment, the success of which will depend largely upon the engagement and involvement of local community groups. Community forest management (CFM) may inform the REDD+ design process, and enhance both land-use strategies by way of synergy. The pathway to that point is, however, uncertain and marred with potential pitfalls. This thesis uses the instructive and critical lens of political ecology to assess the potential for integrating greater CFM elements into the REDD+ policy structure. It explores how the narratives of CFM and REDD+ clash at discursive levels, while also identifying elements of each which may make them mutually beneficial. The thesis finds that much of the conflict between positions on REDD+ are the result of contrasting environmental understandings, some of which are informed by negative experiences with past environmental conservation initiatives. Greater community-centric attributes may assist in improving the local and regional acceptability of REDD+ projects by appealing to the “alternative” values of forest-dependent peoples. Some suggested policy modifications are made to improve the overall design of REDD+ to be inclusive of the concerns of forest user groups, and potential areas for future research projects are discussed. / Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2013-01-28 14:57:55.951

The Effects of Tropical Forest Management on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning Eleanor M. Slade 1. Between 35 % and 50 % of all closed-canopy tropical forest has been lost, and the rate of deforestation continues to increase throughout the tropics. Despite a wealth of literature on the effects of tropical forest disturbance on the diversity and composition of a variety of taxa, there is still no clear consensus on the value of disturbed forests for biodiversity. 2. If forest management practises are to be sustainable in the long-term they should maintain both biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (the interactions and processes of the ecosystem), as well as a timber harvest. However, few studies have investigated the extent to which ecosystem functioning is reduced in logged forests. The effects of different logging intensities on a variety of taxa, and the ecosystem processes with which they are associated, were assessed in the Danum Valley Conservation Area in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo). 3. Even under high logging intensities, the forests of Sabah appear to have been managed in a way that maintains timber yields in the short-term. However, other aspects of forest structure had been affected, which could have important consequences ecologically, and for the long-term sustainability of timber harvests. 4. Combining field studies with manipulative experiments allows assessment of the impacts of species changes associated with habitat modification on measures of ecosystem functioning. Dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) functional group richness and composition were manipulated in a series of field experiments. Certain functional groups and species were found to have a greater impact on ecosystem functioning than others; nevertheless a full complement of species was needed to maintain full ecosystem functioning. 5. Dung beetles appeared to be relatively robust to changes in forest structure associated with selective logging, but species richness was reduced with high-intensity logging. There was a corresponding decrease in ecosystem functioning (dung and seed removal) with a decrease in species richness, and a decrease in the biomass of large nocturnal tunnellers, suggesting that although some species are dominant, rare species are also needed to preserve full ecosystem functioning. 6. A complex interaction between birds and ants resulted in reduced herbivory of seedlings of the important timber tree, Parashorea malaanonan, in some instances. However, this interaction was not affected by either selective or high intensity logging. Seedfall of P. malaanonan, was reduced in logged forest compared to primary forest. Despite insect seed predation being higher in primary forest, there was still successful recruitment during a non-mast year. Parasitism of insect-predated seeds was found to be inversely density dependent, and was higher in logged forest where seed predation was lower. 7. The results of this thesis suggest that the forests of Sabah appear to be being logged under a management system that is compatible with sustainable timber management, but not necessarily sustainable forest management. Low intensity selective logging seems to preserve much of the original forest structure, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning compared to logging at higher intensities. However, ecosystem processes were variable in their response to logging, suggesting that management decisions should be based on the consideration of multiple taxa and processes.