Belief in human rights is a value central to the Canadian self-image. Canadians view the development of Canada's international peacekeeping role and overseas development assistance program in the post-1945 era as the foreign policy manifestation of this belief. It has led to the national myth of the country as a "Humanitarian Middle Power". Canada's response to Indonesia's oppressive occupation of East Timor (1975 - 1999) contradicted this national myth. The concept of meta-narrative, of political mythmaking, is used to examine the reasons why the Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments in Ottawa during this period perceived Canada's national interest in maintaining a strong economic relationship with Jakarta over the protection of human rights in East Timor. These "Official" meta-narratives were countered by Canadian human rights activists, such as the East Timor Alert Network, who stressed the primacy of human rights in foreign-policy decision-making. Ultimately, this debate represents a conflict of values in Canadian society. The "Official" meta-narrative has developed since World War II in active support of the capitalist world-system dominated by the United States, whereas the "Counter" meta-narrative challenges the morality of that system. The "Humanitarian Middle Power" myth, which is at the core of the Canadian identity vis-a-vis the international community, is not completely invalid, but it is greatly limited by the firm adherence of Canadian governments to the world economic structure.

The study of externally-led democratisation in conflict-affected societies has expanded over the last two decades. The introduction of democracy from the outside has attracted extensive scholarly interest in accordance with the increasing engagement of the United Nations and other international agents in attempting to build long-lasting domestic, regional and international peace through promoting democratic forms of government in the post-Cold War era. The studies conducted to investigate democratisation in post-conflict societies have focused on the construction of government institutions and transferring necessary institutional competencies due to the fact that externally-driven democratisation policies target the state rather than the nation. In this respect, some studies undertaken to examine the process of democratisation in post-conflict societies pointed to the need for sequencing of tasks such as establishing security, law and order and building strong and capable government institutions in the first place. Their focus, however, has still remained on the state rather than the nation. Through examining two case studies, this thesis emphasises two significant points: 1) achieving successful democratic transformation in conflict-affected societies requires not only the construction of functioning central state institutions but also the creation of a shared sense of national community; and 2) sequencing of post-conflict reconstruction tasks therefore should also involve building a sense of national cohesion through promoting social communication, participation and inclusion in political, institutional and social processes while postponing the competitive or potentially conflictual aspects of democracy. The need to integrate the creation of a sense of shared national community into studies of democracy promotion in societies emerging from conflict stems from the fact that the reconstruction of post-conflict societies involves two separate but complementary and interacting processes. These processes were examined under two headings: state-building and nation-building. The construction of well-functioning, effective government institutions and the achievement of a sense of national community were found to be vital, inter-connected factors to consolidate democratic rule promoted by external actors. The lack of or a weak sense of social cohesion has an undermining effect on the capacity of state institutions to exercise authority and effectively and democratically perform their roles and duties. Failing to deliver their functions to the public and exercise political authority throughout the entire territory, weak state institutions, in return, do not provide a suitable environment for consolidating democratic rule, which requires the execution of the rule of law and protection and guaranteeing of citizens’ political rights.

This thesis investigates the evolution of Australian and New Zealand peacekeeping operations in the Pacific through a trans-Tasman lens. Both Australian and New Zealand sources are used in order to understand the relationship and interaction between the two nations. This study has a particular focus on the Truce Monitoring Group (TMG) sent to Bougainville in late 1997. This New Zealand-led operation was the first long-term regional peace initiative of recent times, and set the stage for future regional interventions by Australia and New Zealand. The thesis also considers more broadly the subsequent involvement of Australian and New Zealand peacekeepers in the International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) and Regional Assisted Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI). These two later operations are considered with particular attention to lessons learnt from previous peacekeeping experiences and the changing tenor of trans-Tasman relations. Since this is a history thesis it sets the argument within a historical and historiographical framework. It seeks to identify long-term trends surrounding Australia's and New Zealand's relationship with the Pacific, defence connection and Anzac heritage. A further aim of this thesis is to investigate whether joint Australian and New Zealand peacekeeping in the Pacific revived the Anzac relationship first formed at Gallipoli. By looking at evidence taken from interviews and first-hand accounts with Australian and New Zealand participants in the TMG, INTERFET and RAMSI, this thesis argues that hallmarks of the earlier Anzac relationship did re-emerge, though in a slightly different form. The phenomenon of New Zealand's reputation as having a cultural advantage in the Pacific is explored in some detail as this is an important aspect of the Anzac relationship.

Military ethics serve as a normative code of behaviour for the armed forces of a state, acting as a mechanism of definition and control within the force, between the force and its client, and between the force, its adversaries and the wider public. They have two, intrinsically linked, functions: a preventative function, which defines the moral and legal parameters of conduct, and a constructive function, which creates and maintains an effective and controllable force. Preceded by the code of chivalry, they were largely a creation of the era of conventional interstate warfare that was waged across the European continent from the Treaty of Westphalia through to the desolate end of the Second World War; yet, the operations upon which armed forces, and in particular, the New Zealand Army are deployed have changed, dramatically. Wars no longer, current operations are generally justified on moral principles and involve a multinational, joint and interagency deployment sent to intervene in an irregular, intrastate conflict occurring in an underdeveloped region and conducted under the intense glare of the media. This disjuncture between the changing nature of operations and the context in which military ethics were formulated provides the fundamental question for the thesis: if the milieu in which military ethics developed has changed significantly, what is their current utility? Using the New Zealand Army as the frame of reference, first the contemporary operational environment and then the specific operational environment in Timor-Leste were examined to assess the current utility of military ethics. It was found that the preventative function has an increasing utility because it ensures conduct is within expected norms in an era where the perception of the adversary, the local populace and the domestic and international audience is key to operational success. Despite the reduction in conflict intensity, the constructive function has a remaining utility through its mediation and amelioration of the stressors engendered by the growing complexity of the operational environment. The retention of utility for the constructive function appears to have been facilitated by an adaptation of the warrior ethos, from a narrow traditional outlook to a broad and comprehensive modern interpretation.

From the mid-1990s, the amalgamation of security, development, and humanitarian imperatives under the single umbrella of ‘state-building’ has provided a compelling justification for increasingly intrusive interventions into the political, economic, and social affairs of subject countries. Guided by the assumptions of liberal peace theory, state-building initiatives engage directly with states, seeking to achieve a reformulation of structures of government as a first step towards the implementation of wider socio-economic reforms. The state-building project is geared towards the construction of a particular form of statehood in subject states; state institutions are to be reconstructed in accordance with a liberal template, and tasked with establishing the necessary institutional environment for market-led development and the liberal peace. Contemporary discourses of state-building and development are fundamentally interlinked, representing a unified process of neo-liberal replication in subject states, whereby fundamental transformations of social, political, and economic structures are to be implemented and sustained through the construction of liberal state institutions. Pressure to court international approval due to conditions of aid dependence curtails the potential for meaningful democracy in subject countries. Key questions of social and economic policy are subsumed as technical matters of good governance and removed from domestic democratic contestation, facilitating a transfer of formerly domestic considerations into the international sphere. These interlocking processes of state-building and neo-liberal discipline have contributed to an inversion of sovereign statehood, whereby the state serves to channel inward an externally driven agenda, rather than acting as a sovereign expression of domestic interests. This reality raises important questions regarding the nature of democracy in post-conflict environments, and in particular the impact of state-building activities on the prospects for broadly inclusive democracy in subject states. This study will examine the evolution of state-building as a critical components of peace-building missions, its central assumptions and goals, and its implementation in practice in Timor-Leste. The state-building process in Timor-Leste has contributed to the formation of an insulated state with little basis in Timorese society. The democratic experience in Timor-Leste has been profoundly disempowering; conditions of aid dependence have constrained elected governments in key areas of social and economic policy, resulting in a loss of popular legitimacy and mounting public disenchantment. Closer examination of food and agricultural policy and management of Timorese oil reserves reveals the extent to which government policy remains constrained by international preferences. In these areas, the government’s inability to act in the interests of the Timorese public has compounded social hardships and popular discontent, contributing to the build-up of anti-government sentiment that manifested itself in the 2006 crisis.

Since bellyache bush invaded to East Timor it has significantly reduced crop and animal production and consequential loss of income from farm enterprises. Methods of control of bellyache bush chosen should be appropriate to the poor economic position of the farmers. An integrated method of controlling bellyache bush involving slashing combined with mulching and or burning is low cost and is widely used by the Timorese farmers. Although these practices are commonly used to control weeds, there are still many problems that appear in the field during and after weed control. For instance, rapid regeneration of cut stems and production of less fuel than mixed stands to support burning management. / Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate mechanical control such as cutting stems at different heights and cutting stems at different heights in combination with mulch, handpulling and mulching of small plants and mulching of seedlings. This study also investigates bellyache bush properties as a fuel for burning management in the late dry season to control its infestations. / Mechanical control of bellyache bush plants was undertaken south of Darwin at Acacia (12º45’S, 131º09’E) which has an annual average rainfall of 1588.1 mm and Channel Island (12º33’S, 130º51’E) which has annual rainfall of 1713.9 mm. This study was conducted from January 2007 to February 2008. All bellyache bush plants were cut off at different heights according to treatment 0cm (ground level), 10cm, 20cm, 30cm, 40cm and uncut plants considered as a control. / The results indicated that all cutting treatments achieved 100% mortality under low canopy cover, irrespective of season. While, under high canopy cover bellyache bush plants only achieved 100% mortality if cut at 0cm and 10cm height. Stems cut at 20cm, 30cm and 40cm heights re-sprouted in the dry season. Hand-pulling completely killed small plants while mulching did not. Mulching achieved a partial kill of seedlings however it stimulated seedling emergence in the wet season, irrespective of site. / The use of bellyache bush as a fuel for burning management was studied. The study was undertaken at Channel Island, Acacia and Katherine (14º22’S, 132º09’E). The latter has a mean annual rainfall of 875 mm. All bellyache bush plants in the plot were cut in May. Five 1m x 1m quadrat samples were selected within a 10m x 10m plot to measure wet weight and dry weight for the curing rate calculation. In addition, 15 of the cut stems were randomly selected to measure re-sprouting. From five randomly selected 25cm x 25 cm quadrat samples were taken to calculate the weight of fine fuel (less than 6mm in diameter), medium (6mm-25mm) and coarse (greater than 25mm). Heat yield of fuel combustion of this material was calculated by using a bomb calorimeter (As 10-38.5 leco 350 calorimeters). / The results indicated that cut stems of bellyache bush from a low canopy cover site had 7 percent moisture content while stems from a high canopy cover site had a 66 percent moisture content by the end of the dry season. The proportion of these stems in the site with low canopy cover re-sprouted significantly less than those in the high canopy cover site. The fuel load at bellyache bush monoculture had less fine, medium and coarse fuel compared with tropical savanna fuel. However, results from this study indicated that it had a similar heat yield of combustion to other plants in the tropical savanna. / A study of the use of fire as a control tool for bellyache bush was undertaken at Acacia and Katherine from May 2007 to February 2008. This study was carried out on established plants of bellyache bush. The experiment was undertaken in three 10m X 10m plots at each of the two sites. The experiment consisted of three treatments namely: cutting stems at 30 cm and followed by burning, uncut plants plus burning and unburnt plants considered as a control. Each of 20 pieces of bellyache bush stems were randomly selected for fine 0-6 mm, medium 6-25 mm and coarse 25 mm fuel. All these pieces were weighed before and after fire to calculate fuel consumption. Fire intensity was calculated by using Byram’s fire intensity equation. Fifteen soil temperature sensors were buried under uncut plants before burning. After burning all soil temperature sensors were dug out the temperature read and used to calculate fire temperature. Plant mortality was calculated by counting live bellyache bush plants before and after fire. Seed germination and seed recruitment was calculated by counting all seedlings within five 1m x 1m randomly chosen quadrats. / The results show that fire consumed all bellyache bush stems in the late dry season burning. Fire intensity of bellyache bush fuels was quite low compared to other tropical savanna fuel. Soil temperatures ranged between 54.17ºC to 126.13ºC. All bellyache bush plants were completely killed by the fire treatment, but fire stimulated seedling emergence in the following wet season. It was concluded from the results of the experiments that mechanical control slashing system may provide a suitable fuel for the burning management if cut early in the dry season. By late in the dry season bellyache bush plants cut early in the dry season have a low moisture content are completely cured and able to support fire spread of adequate intensity to destroy the plants.

East Timor is rebuilding its stock of infrastructure after decades of underdevelopment and a wave of violent destruction in 1999. As part of this process the Government of East Timor aims to improve access to electricity from less than five percent of the population today to eighty percent by 2020. An important strategy to meeting this aim will be the use of solar home systems (SHS) in remote rural locations. To develop its policy for the deployment of SHS, the Government of East Timor must decide what size of SHS is optimal. This research investigates whether there is a relationship between SHS size and development. / The research adapts an evaluation approach developed by World Bank/UNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. This approach uses a combination of participatory and quantitative tools tailored to the East Timorese context through consultations with rural households about electrification and their use of SHS. Three SHS projects in East Timor were selected for evaluation, each of which had adopted a different sized SHS for their program. The smallest systems installed were 10 Wp single-lamp systems. The largest system was rated at 80 Wp and was supplied with four or six lamps. The third type of system was 40 Wp and provided three lamps / To assess the development impact of these different sizes of SHS, a set of Participatory Evaluation exercises were conducted with seventy-seven small groups of SHS users in twenty four rural communities. These exercises were supplemented with a Socio-economic Household Survey of 195 SHS users. The combined results of these evaluation processes enabled the three sizes of SHS to be compared for two types of benefits—assistance with carrying out important household tasks (i.e. ‘lighting-derived’ benefits) and attributes of SHS which were advantageous in comparison to use of non-electric lighting sources (i.e. ‘intrinsic’ benefits). Analysis of the research results showed that the small 10 Wp SHS provided much of the development impact of the larger systems. For lighting-derived benefits, there was little difference between the development impact of small and large systems. The larger systems provided greater benefit for domestic tasks undertaken in kitchen buildings, since the small and medium sized SHS did not provide lighting in these areas. For intrinsic benefits related to health and convenience, the small systems provided much the same benefits as larger systems. For financial benefits—considered by East Timorese SHS users to be the most important of the intrinsic benefits—smaller systems were found to offer slightly positive benefits due to their lower operating costs. Larger systems, however, were found to have a negative overall financial impact. / The research suggests three significant implications for the design of SHS programs in East Timor and comparable situations elsewhere: programs should focus on providing smaller systems rather than larger ones; systems should be designed to provide a light in the kitchen wherever possible to maximise the overall development impact; and SHS operating costs should be carefully matched to the incomes of rural householders to ensure that operation of the systems can be sustained by user households.

East Timor is rebuilding its stock of infrastructure after decades of underdevelopment and a wave of violent destruction in 1999. As part of this process the Government of East Timor aims to improve access to electricity from less than five percent of the population today to eighty percent by 2020. An important strategy to meeting this aim will be the use of solar home systems (SHS) in remote rural locations. To develop its policy for the deployment of SHS, the Government of East Timor must decide what size of SHS is optimal. This research investigates whether there is a relationship between SHS size and development. / The research adapts an evaluation approach developed by World Bank/UNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. This approach uses a combination of participatory and quantitative tools tailored to the East Timorese context through consultations with rural households about electrification and their use of SHS. Three SHS projects in East Timor were selected for evaluation, each of which had adopted a different sized SHS for their program. The smallest systems installed were 10 Wp single-lamp systems. The largest system was rated at 80 Wp and was supplied with four or six lamps. The third type of system was 40 Wp and provided three lamps / To assess the development impact of these different sizes of SHS, a set of Participatory Evaluation exercises were conducted with seventy-seven small groups of SHS users in twenty four rural communities. These exercises were supplemented with a Socio-economic Household Survey of 195 SHS users. The combined results of these evaluation processes enabled the three sizes of SHS to be compared for two types of benefits—assistance with carrying out important household tasks (i.e. ‘lighting-derived’ benefits) and attributes of SHS which were advantageous in comparison to use of non-electric lighting sources (i.e. ‘intrinsic’ benefits). Analysis of the research results showed that the small 10 Wp SHS provided much of the development impact of the larger systems. For lighting-derived benefits, there was little difference between the development impact of small and large systems. The larger systems provided greater benefit for domestic tasks undertaken in kitchen buildings, since the small and medium sized SHS did not provide lighting in these areas. For intrinsic benefits related to health and convenience, the small systems provided much the same benefits as larger systems. For financial benefits—considered by East Timorese SHS users to be the most important of the intrinsic benefits—smaller systems were found to offer slightly positive benefits due to their lower operating costs. Larger systems, however, were found to have a negative overall financial impact. / The research suggests three significant implications for the design of SHS programs in East Timor and comparable situations elsewhere: programs should focus on providing smaller systems rather than larger ones; systems should be designed to provide a light in the kitchen wherever possible to maximise the overall development impact; and SHS operating costs should be carefully matched to the incomes of rural householders to ensure that operation of the systems can be sustained by user households.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-03T16:16:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Suzipg1_30.pdf: 643965 bytes, checksum: efa7101cf6167efb1d80707e00f3e8ae (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-03-18 / Esta pesquisa de mestrado analisa a educação de Timor-Leste, tendo como principal foco os professores, procurando identificar os principais desafios por eles enfrentados para a sua formação e atuação e suas implicações para o futuro educacional do país. Timor-Leste é um país do sudoeste asiático, que se tornou independente em 1999; deste então tem procurado se estabelecer como um país livre e democrático. Sua história pregressa é marcada por dominações, tendo sido colônia portuguesa por mais de quatro séculos e posteriormente invadido pela Indonésia. Esses distintos períodos históricos marcaram profundamente todas as instâncias da nação, sobretudo a educação, que sempre foi produto dos povos dominantes. Esta pesquisa, portanto, traz um panorama histórico, considerando sua importância para compreensão dos desdobramentos do sistema educacional hodierno, especialmente no que se refere à formação de professores diante dos dilemas herdados, tais como: evasão dos professores, que eram na sua maioria do país invasor, infra-estrutura precária, limitações linguísticas, entre outros. O método utilizado para a realização da pesquisa foi uma aproximação da etnografia, tendo uma abordagem qualitativa e quantitativa. As fontes foram diversificadas; utilizei documentos escritos, orais e iconográficos, alguns já existentes e outros produzidos no processo de pesquisa. Paulo Freire e António Nóvoa são as principais referências teóricas neste estudo, na reflexão sobre a formação de professores. Pude constatar que o caminho para a autonomia e para que haja uma boa qualidade no sistema educacional de Timor, dentro de uma visão realista e plausível, pode ser longo, há muito trabalho a fazer, e isto depende de muitos aspectos para que possa se concretizar. Ações conjuntas do governo, sociedade e organismos internacionais são extremamente necessárias, principalmente para o planejamento de uma política séria, significativa e contextualizada que servirá de base para o que se tornará a educação do país.

Esta pesquisa, que tem como tema a influência da Igreja Católica no atual contexto histórico-social do Timor-Leste, foi realizada entre junho de 2008 e agosto de 2010. O Timor-Leste, localizado no Sudeste Asiático, após quatro séculos de ocupação portuguesa e 24 anos de dominação indonésia tornou-se independente em 2002. A Igreja Católica, uma das instituições mais antigas do país que chegou ao Timor no século XVI junto com os primeiros navegadores portugueses, reivindica para si um papel de destaque na proteção do povo durante os anos de conflito entre a guerrilha e o exército indonésio, e no processo que levou a independência. Para o trabalho de campo, através da observação participante, concentrei as minhas analises entre os Humangili, grupo etnolinguístico com aproximadamente duas mil pessoas, falantes do Hresuk e moradores da ilha de Ataúro. Ao contrário do restante do Timor, a Igreja Católica chegou a Ataúro somente depois das quatro primeiras décadas do século XX. Em Humangili, todas as pessoas são cristãs, sendo seguidoras da Igreja Católica ou da Assembleia de Deus, porém algumas práticas que evocam os espíritos dos antepassados e da natureza ainda persistem nos dias de hoje. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar a relação entre o catolicismo e o sistema de crenças e práticas de culto aos ancestrais e aos espíritos da natureza. Dividi este trabalho em quatro capítulos onde, pelo viés da religião, analiso as dinâmicas políticas, econômicas, os arranjos de casamento e o significado de conversão para os Humangili. Na última parte, apresento um dicionário de Hresuk-Português, como uma tentativa de preservar esta forma oral de comunicação. / The present research, which has as its theme the influence of the Catholic Church in the current socio-historical context of Timor-Leste, was carried out between June 2008 and August 2010. Timor-Leste, located in South East Asia, became independent in 2002 after four centuries of Portuguese occupation and 24 years of Indonesian domination. The Catholic Church, one of the oldest institutions of the country, arriving in Timor on the seventeeth century with the first Portuguese sailors, reclaims to itself a distinguishing role in the protection of people during the years of conflict between the guerrilla and the Indonesian army and in the process that led to its independence. In order to carry out my field work through observing-participation, I focused my analysis amongst the Humangili, an ethno-linguistic group, which has approximately 2,000 people, who are speakers of Hresuk and are inhabitants of Ataúro Island. Contrary to the rest of Timor, the Catholic Church arrived in Ataúro only after the first four decades of the twentieth century. In Humangili, all of the people are Christian and are followers either of the Catholic Church or of the Assembly of God, though certain practices that evoke the spirits of the forefathers and of nature persist until today. The purpose of this research is to analyse the relation between Catholicism and the practices of cult to the forefathers and to the spirits of nature. I divided this work into four chapters where, through the lens of religion, I analyse the political and economic dynamics, marriage arrangements and the meaning of conversion to the Humangili. In the last part, I present a Hresuk-Portuguese dictionary as an attempt to preserve this oral form of communication.