Introdução. O transplante de células é possibilidade terapêutica promissora para muitas doenças neurológicas. Nos últimos anos, a possibilidade do isolamento de células-tronco dos tecidos adultos, por exemplo da medula-óssea, atrai a atenção da comunidade científica, estratégia que minimiza os problemas éticos relativos ao uso de tecido fetal para implantes visando ao tratamento de doenças neurológicas. Entretanto, a eficiência da transdiferenciação de células-tronco mesenquimais em neurônios, bem como os mecanismos envolvidos nesse processo, permanecem desconhecidos. A obtenção de neurônios maduros ocorreu somente em sistemas de co-cultura, o que induz a questão se a diferenciação representa um potencial das células per si, ou se é possível somente devido à fusão com neurônios maduros. Objetivos. No presente trabalho, pretendeu-se verificar o potencial de as células-tronco mesenquimais tornarem-se neurônios e esclarecer os possíveis mecanismos envolvidos nesse processo. Material e métodos. Células-tronco mesenquimais foram isoladas de 20 doadores voluntários normais e caracterizadas por análise de separação celular ativada por fluorescência. A multipotencialidade foi investigada ao se diferenciar as células em condrócitos e osteócitos. A capacidade de auto-renovação foi confirmada pelo ensaio de incorporação de BrdU. Ulteriormente, as células foram diferenciadas por uma semana em meio contendo AMPc, IBMX, ou combinação de ambos, e os resultados foram comparados com o cultivo em meio básico. Diferentes bloqueadores de Ca2+ ou inibidores de PKA foram usados como tentativa de se impedir a diferenciação, ocorrência que foi mensurada com imunocitoquímica para NF-200 (marcador de neurônios maduros). O registro eletrofisiológico por meio de patch clamp foi usado para se confirmar o fenótipo neuronal. As figuras foram configuradas em microscopia confocal. Para análise estatística foi utilizada ANOVA com teste post-hoc. Resultados. As células isoladas expressaram CD90, 105, 44 e 13 mas foram negativas para CD34 e 45. Isto significa que não são de origem hematopoiética; 98,74 ± 0,43% das células incorporaram BrdU em 24 horas. Após o isolamento, foi possível diferenciá-las em condrócitos ou osteócitos. Em situação controle, não foram evidenciadas células positivas para NF200. Por outro lado, ocorreu positividade em 10,75% ± 1,35 (p<0,0001) das células sob IBMX e, em 15,18% ± 1,12, sob a combinação cAMP e IBMX (p<0,0001). Foram registradas correntes de Na+ e K+ dependentes de voltagem, mas não potenciais de ação. A diferenciação foi inibida com PKAi (5,73% ± 0,42, p<0,0001), nifedipina (5,79% ± 0,98, p<0,0001), Ni2+ (7,06% ± 1,68, p<0,0001) e Cd2+ (0 ± 0, p<0,0001). Discussão. Isolou-se uma população de células-tronco estromais da medula-óssea de seres humanos que se mostrou multipotencial e auto-renovável. O aumento da concentração de AMPc no meio elevou a concentração de neurônios para 15%. A diferenciação parece depender da via PKA mas também envolve a concentração intracelular de Ca2+. Conclusão. O correto entendimento de como as células-tronco mesenquimais diferenciam-se pode contribuir para aumentar a eficácia do método e, talvez um dia, tornar possível o uso dessa ferramenta no campo clínico. / Introduction. Cell transplantation has been considered a promising therapeutic approach for many neurological diseases. The possibility of isolation of stem cells from adult tissues, i.e. bone marrow, has attracted the attention of the scientific community in the recent years. This strategy is interesting on avoiding the ethical issues regarding the use of fetal tissue for neural implants. Moreover, the efficiency of the transdifferentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into neurons, and the mechanisms involved in this process remain largely unknown. The obtention of mature neurons was described only in coculture systems, what raised the question if the differentiation is a potential of the cells itself, or if it is possible only due to fusion with mature neurons. Objectives. In the present investigation, we aimed to verify the potential of MSCs to differentiate into neurons, and also to clarify the possible mechanisms involved on it. Material and methods. MSCs were isolated from 20 healthy human subjects and characterized by FACS-analysis. Multipotentiality was addressed by differentiating them into chondrocytes and osteocytes. The self-renewal capacity was confirmed with BrdU-incorporation assay. Afterwards, cells were differentiated for 1 week in a medium containing cAMP, IBMX, or a combination of both, and the results were compared with cells treated in basal-medium condition. Different Ca2+-blockers and PKA-inhibitor peptide were used on an attempt to impair differentiation, which was quantified with NF-200 immunostaining (a marker of mature neurons). Patch-clamp recording was used to confirm neuronal phenotype. Pictures were taken in confocal microscope. For statistical analysis ANOVA with a post-hoc test was used. Results. The isolated cells expressed CD90, 105, 44, and 13, but were negative for CD34 and 45, meaning that they were non-hematopoiethic; 98.74 ± 0.43 % of them incorporated BrdU in 6hs. After isolation, they differentiated into chondrocytes and osteocytes. In a control situation, no NF200 positive cell was seen. On the other hand, 10.75% ± 1.35 (p<.0001) of positivity was seen under IBMX and 15.18% ± 1.12 in the combination of cAMP with IBMX (p<.0001). Na+ and K+-voltage gated currents were recorded. Differentiation was impaired with PKAi (5.73% ± 0.42, p<.0001), nifedipin (5.79% ± 0.98, p<.0001), Ni2+ (7.06% ± 1.68, p<.0001), and Cd2+ (0 ± 0, p<.0001). Discussion. We were able to isolate a population of stromal stem cells from the bone marrow of human subjects, since they were multipotential and self-renewable. Increasing the concentration of cAMP raised the percentage of neurons up to 15%. The differentiation seems to be dependent on the PKA pathway, but also involved the intracellular concentration of Ca2+. Conclusions. The complete understanding of how MSC differentiate can contribute to increase the efficiency of the method and thus make possible to use this powerful tool in the clinical practice.

Chaque cellule humaine est constamment soumise à des agressions extérieures comme l'exposition aux rayons Ultra-Violets, agents chimiques, etc. ou endogènes provenant de la production de métabolites par la cellule elle-même. Ces agressions induisent des dommages dans l'ADN. Ces dommages, s'ils ne sont pas réparés correctement, peuvent induire un dérèglement des fonctions de base de la cellule qui peut alors devenir cancéreuse. Pour réparer leur ADN, les cellules activent divers mécanismes de réparation et établissent une signalisation au niveau des sites endommagés. Dans le noyau, l'ADN est associé à des protéines appelées histones pour former la chromatine. La chromatine se caractérise par différents niveaux d'organisation, aboutissant à la formation d'une structure très compacte. Cette compaction élevée de la chromatine peut représenter une barrière pour la machinerie de réparation. En effet, pour être réparé, l'ADN endommagé doit être accessible à la machinerie de réparation. Pour cela, les cellules ont développé des mécanismes permettant d'accéder à l'ADN endommagé. Ces mécanismes de réponse aux dommages à l'ADN impliquent l'activation de voies de signalisation. L'un des signaux précurseurs activés après dommage à l'ADN est la Poly-ADP-Ribosylation (PARylation). La PARylation est une modification post-traductionnelle composée d'une répétition de petites molécules appelées Poly-ADP-Riboses, qui s'accrochent notamment sur les histones pour signaler la présence de cassures dans l'ADN et permettent ainsi de recruter les protéines impliquées dans la réparation des dommages. Lorsque l'ADN est endommagé, l'activation de processus de réparation induit de manière précoce le recrutement de facteurs de remodelage de la chromatine. Le rôle exact de la signalisation via la PARylation durant les étapes précoces de la réponse aux dommages à l'ADN et plus particulièrement lors du remodelage de la chromatine reste encore mal caractérisé. Durant ma thèse, j'ai utilisé des techniques avancées en microscopie pour étudier la dynamique de la chromatine après induction de dommages à l'ADN. J'ai ainsi tenté d'élucider le rôle de la PARylation dans le mécanisme de remodelage de la chromatine au niveau des dommages dans l'ADN, en recherchant des facteurs permettant d'altérer de manière spécifique la dynamique de la chromatine. Cette méthodologie nous a permis d'identifier différents facteurs impliqués dans le remodelage de la chromatine après dommage à l'ADN. / In each human cell, many thousands of DNA lesions arise every day, challenging continuously the genome integrity. The majority of these lesions results from byproducts of normal cell metabolism or DNA replication, but they are also induced by exposure to radiations and genotoxic chemicals. The integrity of the genome is preserved by a plethora of different DNA damage signalling and repair machinery arranged by the cells. In the cell nucleus, DNA associates with scaffolding proteins to form the chromatin. The chromatin is tightly packed in the nucleus through several levels of organization. Such high-packing state poses a significant challenge for the repair machinery. Indeed, the damaged DNA needs to be accessible to repair proteins, and for that, cells have developed several mechanisms to allow the access to the damaged chromatin. The early steps of the DNA damage response involve the activation of proteins that are part of signalling pathways. One of the proteins activated upon DNA damage is PARP1, which synthetizes long and branched chains of ADP-ribose (poly-ADP-ribose or PAR) on itself and other chromatin factors, including histones. The activation of PARP1 leads to the recruitment of several effectors involved in DNA repair and chromatin remodeling. However the exact function of the PAR-signalling during early DNA damage response and in particular during chromatin remodeling at DNA breaks remains unclear. During my PhD, I used advanced fluorescent imaging tools to study in living cells the dynamics of chromatin in the nucleus at a local scale upon DNA damage. I used these tools to study PAR-dependent chromatin relaxation after DNA damage and to screen factors that selectively alter the dynamic behaviour of the damaged chromatin. This methodology allowed us to identify PAR-dependent factors involved in the local chromatin remodeling upon DNA damage.

Pendant longtemps, la chromatine a été uniquement décrite comme un moyen de compacter près de deux mètres d’ADN dans un noyau de quelques micromètres de diamètre. On sait aujourd’hui que la chromatine représente en fait un élément majeur de régulation de toutes les fonctions nucléaires impliquant l’ADN. Dans le contexte de dommages de l’ADN induits par irradiations UV, la chromatine endommagée subit une décondensation rapide et transitoire qui l’amène à occuper un volume 1,5 fois plus grand que son volume initial. Cette relaxation chromatinienne est associée à une plus grande accessibilité de l’ADN. Néanmoins, le lien entre ces deux effets découlant de la présence de dommages, n’a pas été établi, ni caractérisé. En couplant l’imagerie de cellules vivantes à l’induction de dommages ciblés au sein de noyaux cellulaires par micro-irradiation laser, ces travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence le rôle majeur de PARP1 dans la réponse chromatinienne aux dommages de l’ADN. En effet, certaines conclusions contradictoires présentes dans la littérature scientifique concernant l’action de PARP1 sur la chromatine ont été réconciliées en démontrant que PARP1 seul peut se lier à la chromatine et entraîner une plus forte compaction de celle-ci, tandis que son activité catalytique de PARylation va, quant à elle, conduire à une décompaction de la structure chromatinienne. Cette étude s’est aussi intéressée à la dynamique particulière de l’histone H1 suite aux dommages de l’ADN. En effet, celui-ci est rapidement exclu des zones de dommages par un mécanisme encore inconnu, et les éléments apportés ici suggèrent que H1 pourrait jouer un rôle dans la décondensation de la chromatine suite aux dommages de l’ADN. Pour finir, des techniques de photo-perturbation et de spectroscopie de corrélation de fluorescence ont été employées pour comprendre et caractériser l’environnement moléculaire que constitue la chromatine endommagée et décondensée. Bien qu’une augmentation significative des interactions entre la chromatine et certains de ses partenaires d’interactions soit observée au sein des zones endommagées, aucun changement en termes d’encombrement moléculaire n’a pu être mis en évidence à ce niveau qui pourrait expliquer une plus grande accessibilité de l’ADN. / For a long time, chromatin was only described as a mean to fit the two-meters long DNA molecule into a nucleus of only a few microns. It is admitted today that chromatin actually represents a key element in the regulation of all nuclear functions dependent on DNA. In the context of UV-induced DNA damage, chromatin undergoes a rapid and transient relaxation which leads to an expansion of the damaged area to 1.5 times its original size. While this chromatin response to damage is associated with a higher DNA accessibility, the link between those two phenomena, as well as the mechanisms driving them, are still poorly understood. Using live-cell imaging and laser micro-irradiation to induce DNA damage on specific nuclear areas, this work allowed to gain hindsight on the predominant role played by PARP1 in the DNA damage-induced chromatin relaxation. Indeed, showing that PARP1 at DNA damage sites can both induce chromatin compaction through its recruitment at DNA breaks or chromatin decondensation through its PARylation activity helped reconcile its apparent opposite effects described in the literature. A focus was also made on the linker histone H1, as it displays a peculiar behavior upon DNA damage, being rapidly released from the site of DNA lesions. Even if the driving force behind H1 release from damaged chromatin areas has not been identified yet, its behavior suggests that H1 might play a part in chromatin relaxation or in increasing DNA accessibility upon DNA damage. Lastly, combining photo-activation techniques and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, experiments were performed in order to understand the physical environment that damaged, relaxed chromatin constitutes. We report here that, while enhanced binding of random DNA binding factors is observed in the damaged chromatin area, no significant change is observed in the macromolecular crowding levels that could potentially explain this enhanced binding, as well as a higher DNA accessibility.

Les complexes acétyltransférases (HAT), SAGA et ATAC, sont des régulateurs de la transcription des gènes. Cependant, peu d’études ont été menées sur la dynamique de ces complexes au niveau cellulaire et sur les mécanismes régulant leur assemblage. Au cours de mes travaux de thèse, j’ai utilisé des approches d’imagerie sur cellules vivantes, afin de déterminer la mobilité de ces complexes en comparaison avec celle d’autres régulateurs transcriptionnels. Les résultats ont montré que les sous-unités de SAGA et ATAC interagissent de manière transiente avec la chromatine. En complément, nous avons montré que les sous-unités spécifiques de SAGA et ATAC (ADA2b et ADA2a) ont des propriétés dynamique intracellulaire différentes et que GCN5, affecte la distribution d’ADA2a. Des analyses protéomique menées sur le comportement de ces protéines au niveau endogène, ont permis de montrer que les voies d’assemblage de ces deux complexes étaient différentes au niveau cytoplasmique et nucléaire. / Human SAGA and ATAC, are histone acetyltransferase (HAT) containing complexes that share a set of subunits and facilitate RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcription. Little is known for the dynamics of the complexes in living cells and the regulation of their assembly. In this work, we used live-cell imaging to characterise the mobility of the two complexes and compare it with other actors of Pol II transcription. All tested ATAC and SAGA subunits exhibit very transient interactions with chromatin, a property that explains certain aspects of the function of the complexes. Moreover, we showed that overexpressed ATAC- and SAGA-specific HAT-module subunits (ADA2a and ADA2b respectively) have different intracellular dynamics and that the abundance of the shared subunit GCN5, affects the distribution of ADA2a. Quantitative proteomic analysis expanded our findings on endogenous proteins and provided evidence that the cytoplasmic and nuclear assembly pathways of SAGA and ATAC are different.

Abstract Previous reports on the effects of enhanced UV-B radiation on bryophytes have been equivocal. This study shows that mosses not only respond to enhanced UV-B, but they are affected by changes in ambient radiation. The studies were conducted with two model species common in northern environments; red-stemmed feather moss (Pleurozium schreberi) and juniper haircap moss (Polytrichum juniperinum). Both species showed high concentrations of methanol-extractable UV-absorbing compounds (UACs) with high spring-time and early-summer UV, whereas in P. juniperinum, the concentration was affected by early-summer drought. The UACs of P. juniperinum increased again towards autumn suggesting a role in winter hardening. The (spring-time) cell wall-bound UV screen was important to both species. The fundamental adaptation of P. juniperinum to open and exposed environments was reflected in relatively higher concentrations of total UACs compared to P. schreberi. The enhanced UV-B experiments in situ were conducted over two years in Oulu and six years at the FUVIRC site in Sodankylä. Some of the effects of UV-B were seen within the first years of the experiments, or even within hours, while others were observed after several years. Five or six years of enhanced UV-B treatment increased the methanol-extractable UACs of P. schreberi and decreased the green shoot growth of P. juniperinum. The immediate light environment was proposed to have an impact on the varying UAC concentrations. Some mitigating effects of UV-A were observed as well. Off-site measured, reconstructed and modelled UV radiation data was used for comparisons of light environment in situ, or when performing a reconstructive research with historical samples. The environmental sample banks can provide a useful tool to study past environmental conditions, and even reconstruct past radiation levels. It was shown in this study that UACs in P. schreberi and P. juniperinum have fundamental roles as UV-B screens in the cell walls, but there is also a variable response with the soluble fraction that reacts and adapts to the changes in UV radiation. The responses to increasing UV-B radiation vary in magnitude and in time. As P. schreberi and P. juniperinum possess circumboreal and cosmopolitan distributions, the effects of UV-B on these species and consequently on ecosystems has a broad application.

En fournissant l’énergie nécessaire au métabolisme, la phosphorylation oxydative (OXPHOS) est un processus essentiel pour la plupart des organismes vivants. Pour faire face à diverses conditions métaboliques, l’efficacité des chaines respiratoires de la membrane composant l’OXPHOS doit être optimisée. Il est donc important de déterminer les mécanismes qui permettent de réguler l’efficacité de l’OXPHOS en fonction des besoins métaboliques.La question posée est la suivante : existe-t-il une organisation particulière des acteurs de l’OXPHOS dans la membrane des procaryotes qui puisse réguler l’activité de l’OXPHOS ?J’ai étudié l’organisation spatio-temporelle d‘un complexe respiratoire majeur de l’anaérobiose, la nitrate réductase NarGHI chez E. coli. Après avoir créé les outils pour la visualisation de ce complexe dans la cellule, j’ai montré l’existence d’une microcompartimentation de NarGHI aux pôles de la cellule lors d’une respiration en anaérobiose par microscopie optique à fluorescence. Dans un deuxième temps, j’ai montré le caractère dynamique de cette localisation en fonction des conditions métaboliques. L’anaérobiose et la présence d’un ∆pH suffisant sont des éléments requis pour permettre ce niveau d’organisation. Enfin, j’ai démontré que la microcompartimentation de NarGHI aux pôles des cellules augmente le flux d’électrons et l’efficacité des chaines respiratoires associées à la respiration du nitrate.L’ensemble des travaux réalisés au cours de ma thèse permet une meilleure compréhension du processus de l’OXPHOS chez les procaryotes et donne une nouvelle vision des moyens employés pour optimiser l’OXPHOS en fonction des différentes conditions métaboliques. / By providing the energy for the cellular metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is an essential process for most living organisms. In order to thrive, the efficiency of membrane respiratory chains which constitute the OXPHOS must be optimized. Thus it is important to address mechanisms by which the efficiency of the OXPHOS is regulated in response to varying metabolic needs.The question addressed during this PhD is the following: does it exist a specific organization of the OXPHOS components in prokaryotic membranes and does it contribute to the regulation of the OXPHOS process?I have investigated the spatio-temporal organization of a respiratory complex, the nitrate reductase NarGHI of the E. coli bacterium. After creating the tools needed to visualize submicrometrically this complex in the unique cell, I have shown the existence of a polar microcompartimentation during anaerobic respiration using fluorescence microscopy. I have demonstrated the dynamic subcellular organization of NarGHI in response to metabolic conditions. Anaerobiosis and a sufficient ∆pH are cues required to promote such cellular organization. Finally, I have demonstrated that polar microcompartimentation of the complex increases the electron flux and the efficiency of the associated respiratory chains.Overall, these results provide a novel view on OXPHOS in bacterial cells by demonstrating that spatio-temporal organization of a respiratory complex tunes the overall efficiency of the process in response to environmental cues.

Depuis sa mise sur le marché à la fin des années 70, le Cisplatin est devenu l’un des pricipaux agents de chimiothérapie anticancéreuse. Actuellement, les composés à base de platine sont présents dans la majorité des coktails de chimiothérapie. Cependant, malgré leur succès clinique, ces composés présentent de nombreux inconvenients comme par exemple de nombreux et graves effets secondaires. Une des stratégies envisagées pour parer à ces défauts a été de remplacer le platine par d’autres métaux de transition. Parmi les différents métaux possibles, l’or est apparu comme particulièrement prometteur. En effet, les propriétés pharmacologiques de l’or sont bien connues depuis des siècles, et aujourd’hui encore certains complexes d’or sont utilisés comme agents anti-arthritiques. Plus récement, il a été démontré que les complexes d’or étaient actifs sur des lignées cellulaires cancéreuses résistantes au Cisplatin. Parmi les différentes classes de composés à base d’or synthétisées et testées, certaines familles de complexes organométalliques tel que les carbènes N-hétérocycliques, les complexes à ligands cyclométallés ou alkynyl ont attiré un intérêt tout particulier à cause de leur grande stabilité en milieu physiologique.Dans le présent manuscrit, nous avons présenté la synthèse de différents types de de complexes à base d’or incluant des carbènes N-hétérocycliques d’or(I), des complexes « bifonctionnels » d’or(I) basés sur le lansoprazole, des complexes (C^N) cyclométalés d’or(III) ainsi que des complexes homo- et hétérobimétalliques présentant un motif or(I)-NHC. Les différents composés ont été testés sur des panels de lignées cellulaires cancéreuses humaines et les résultats ont été comparés à un modèle de cellules rénales humaines saines. Nous avons effectué différentes études mécanistiques pour tenter d’élucider le possible mécanisme d’action de ces composés. Ces investigations ont inclus des études de toxicité sur des tissus sains ex vivo utilisant des tranches de tissus coupés avec précision ainsi que l’identification de possible cibles intracellulaires. Nous avons étudié deux possibles enzymes cibles : la thiorédoxine réductase et la poly(ADP-ribose) polymérase 1 ainsi qu’une structure non-usuelle de l’ADN : la structure G-quadruplexe. L’internalisation cellulaire de certains composés fluorescents a aussi été étudiée par microscopie confocale. Parmi les différents composés testés, certains ont montré une sélectivité pour les cellules cancéreuses qui mérite une étude plus approfondie. / Currently, platinum-based compounds are present in the majority of the chemotherapeutic cocktails. However, despite their clinical success, platinum-based drugs present several limitations including numerous and severe side effects. A strategy envisaged to overcome these limitations is the replacement of platinum by other transition metals. Among the different metals tested over the years, gold compounds have been shown to be promising as they can overcome resistance to cisplatin due to their different modes of action.In the present thesis, we present the synthesis of different types of gold-based complexes including gold(I)-N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC), (C^N) cyclometalated gold(III) complexes as well as heterobimetallic complexes bearing a gold(I)-NHC moiety. These compounds show higher stability in a physiological environment compared to classical platinum complexes The different compounds have been tested in panels of human cancer cell lines and a model of human healthy kidney cells. Moreover, “bifunctional” lansoprazole-based gold(I) complexes were also evaluated for their biological properties in vitro. On selected compounds we also performed mechanistic studies to try to elucidate their possible mechanisms of action. Specifically, we investigated two possible enzyme targets: thioredoxin reductase and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1, as well as DNA G-quadruplexes. The cellular uptake of some fluorescent compounds was also studied using confocal microscopy techniques. In a few cases, we also assessed their toxicity ex vivo in rat healthy tissues using the precision-cut tissue slices technique. Among the twenty gold-based compounds we synthesized, two of them presented interesting selective toxicity for cancer cells compared to healthy cells and tissues and deserve further investigations as potential anticancer drugs.

Single-molecule localisation microscopy (SMLM) allows imaging of fluorescently-tagged proteins in live cells with a precision well below that of the diffraction limit. As a single-molecule technique, it has also introduced a new quantitative approach to fluorescence microscopy. In the Part A of this thesis, the design and building of three SMLM instruments, the implementation of a custom-developed image analysis package and the characterisation of the photo-physical properties of the photo-activable fluorescent protein used in this thesis (mEos), are discussed. Then, a new post-processing method for SMLM analysis is characterised: axial optical sectioning of SMLM images is demonstrated by thresholding fitted localisations using their fitted width and amplitude to reject fluorophores that emit from above or below a virtual ?light-sheet?, a thin volume centred on the focal plane of the microscope. This method provides qualitative and quantitative improvements to SMLM. In the Part B of this thesis, SMLM is applied to study T cell activation. Although the T cell receptor plays a key role in immunity, its stoichiometry in the membrane of resting T cells is still a matter of debate. Here, single-molecule counting methods are implemented to compare the stoichiometry of TCRs fused with mEos2 in resting T cells to monomeric and dimeric controls. However, because of the stochasticity of mEos2 photo-physics, results are inconclusive and new counting techniques based on structural imaging are discussed. In addition to TCR triggering, T cells require the co-stimulatory triggering of the CD28 transmembrane receptor to become fully activated. However, some immobilised anti-CD28 antibodies, referred to as super-agonists (SA), can directly activate T cells without triggering the TCR. In this thesis, single-molecule tracking techniques are used to investigate the molecular mechanism of CD28 super-agonism in live T cells. The results indicate that the diffusion of CD28 is slowed by SA binding. This effect is further discussed in light of the kinetic-segregation model proposed for TCR triggering. Quantitative SMLM as implemented and further developed in this work offers new tools to investigate the molecular mechanisms initiating T cell activation, ultimately facilitating the discovery of novel approaches to target these pathways for therapeutic purposes.

Click chemistry is a molecular synthesis strategy based on reliable, highly selective reactions with thermodynamic driving forces typically in excess of 20 kcal mol-1. The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of azides and alkynes developed by Rolf Huisgen saw dramatic rate acceleration using Cu(I) as a catalyst in 2002 reports by Barry Sharpless and Morten Meldal enabling its click chemistry eligibility. Since these seminal reports, the copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) has become the quintessential click reaction finding diverse utility. The popularity of the CuAAC has naturally led to interest in new catalyst systems with improved efficiency, robustness, and reusability with particular focus on nanomaterial catalysts, a common trend across the field of catalysis. The high surface area of nanomaterials lends to their efficacy as colloidal and heterogeneous nanocatalysts, but the latter boasts the added benefit of easy separation and recyclability. With any heterogeneous catalyst, a common question arises as to whether the active catalyst species is truly heterogeneous or rather homogeneous through metal ion leaching. Differentiating these processes is critical, as the latter would result in reduced efficiency, higher cost, and inevitable environmental and heath side effects. This thesis explores the CuAAC from an interdisciplary approach. First as a synthetic tool, applying CuAAC-formed triazoles as functional, modular building blocks in the synthesis of optical cation sensors by combining azide and alkyne modified components to create a series of sensors selective for different metal cations. Next, single-molecule spectroscopy techniques are employed to observe the CuNP-catalyzed CuAAC in real time. Combining bench-top techniques with single-molecule microscopy to monitor single-catalytically generated products proves to be an effective method to establish catalysis occurs directly at the surface of copper nanoparticles, ruling out catalysis by ions leached into solution. This methodology is extended to mapping the catalytic activity of a commercial heterogeneous catalyst by applying super-localization analysis of single-catalytic events. The approach detailed herein is a general one that can be applied to any catalytic system through the development of appropriate probes. This thesis demonstrates single-molecule microscopy as an accessible, effective, and unparalleled tool for exploring the catalytic activity of nanomaterials by monitoring single-catalytic events as they occur.

L’objectif de cette thèse est l’élaboration de sondes à base de lanthanide pour la microscopie optique biphotonique. Cette technique d’imagerie complémentaire à l’IRM et au scanner permet une analyse rapide et facile de tissus épais. Afin de permettre l’observation en profondeur, l’absorption et l’émission de la sonde doit se situer dans la zone de transparence biologique [700 – 1200 nm]. L’absorption à deux photons (ADP) est un phénomène d’optique linéaire de troisième ordre par lequel l’état excité est atteint par absorption simultanée de deux photons. De fait, l’excitation à énergie moitié se situe dans la zone de transparence biologique. Les sondes envisagées combineraient les propriétés optiques uniques des lanthanides, telles que des bandes d’émission très étroites allant du visible à l’infrarouge et des durées de vie de luminescence longues, et les avantages de l’ADP, permettant une excitation dans l’IR et une résolution tridimensionnelle. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse décrit l’élaboration de complexes d’europium et d’ytterbium à ligands macrocycliques stables en milieu aqueux et dont la luminescence peut être sensibilisée à deux photons. Ces complexes ont permis l’imagerie de la vascularisation de cerveaux de souris par microscopie biphotonique dans le proche infrarouge. La seconde approche consiste à encapsuler un complexe luminescent dans des nanoparticules desilice formées par la technique sol-gel (collaboration A. Ibanez, institut Néel, Grenoble) afin de protéger le complexe du milieu biologique. Enfin la dernière approche consiste à greffer des complexes de lanthanides à la surface d’une particule de silice par chimie organométallique de surface. Ces travaux ont conduit à la formation de nano-objet très brillants dans le rouge et le proche infrarouge, détectables à l’échelle de l’objet unique par microscopie à deux photons. / Two Photon Scanning Laser Microscopy (TPSLM) has evolved as an emerging bio-imaging technique widely used in academic research and in medical diagnosis. This technique requires the design of bioprobes specially optimized for such purpose. A particular attention is actually devoted bio-probes featuring both two-photon absorption (TPA) and emission in the near infra-red (NIR) spectral range [700 – 1200 nm], also called biological window that is particularly promising for thick tissues imaging. In this context, europium complexes emitting in the red (615 nm) has been recently sensitized by two photon antenna effect and used for TPSLM in cells combining the advantages of lanthanide emission (sharp line and long lived) and those of TPA. Based on this preliminary results, this thesis describe the design of europium and ytterbium complexes which have an improved stability in water and good emission properties sensitized by TPA. Theses complexes allow the imaging of mice’s brain vascularisation in the NIR. An another approach to stabilize lanthanide complexes was also used by encapsulating theses fluorophores in silica nanoparticle (collaboration with A. Ibanez, Institut Néel, Grenoble). Then the last approach consists on the grafting of the chromophores on silica sphere using surface organometallic chemistry methods. The nanoparticles obtained by both way are really luminescent in the red or infrared and can be imaged as single nanoparticle by TPSLM.