[pt] As premências da sociedade contemporânea têm dependido gradativamente mais do uso de dispositivos optoeletrônicos como solução para o aperfeiçoamento de inúmeras aplicações diárias. Notadamente na última década, áreas como a de geração de energia elétrica com células solares inorgânicas ou a de computação com o advento de computadores quânticos baseados em fótons únicos têm acumulado muitos investimentos em pesquisa. Este trabalho visa estudar e definir os parâmetros necessários para a produção de pontos quânticos (QD, do inglês Quantum Dot) de semicondutores III-V com o objetivo de aplicá-los como material ativo para células solares de banda intermediária (IBSC, do inglês Intermediate Band Solar Cell) e para emissores de fótons únicos quando inseridos em nanofios (QD-in-NW, do inglês QD in Nanowire). Para a aplicação em IBSC, os pontos quânticos são produzidos auto organizadamente pelo modo Stranski-Krastanow. A estrutura de banda do IBSC requer um poço de potencial fundo o suficiente para gerar 3 absorções em paralelo de fótons com energias distintas (um proveniente da energia de gap do material da barreira, um da absorção banda-banda do poço de potencial e o terceiro da absorção intra-banda do poço na banda de condução). Os materiais escolhidos foram barreiras de AlxGa1-xAs e poço de InAs crescidos sobre um substrato de GaAs(100). Os resultados do crescimento dessa estrutura foram analisados por microscopia de força atômica (AFM, do inglês atomic force microscopy), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) e fotoluminescência (PL, do inglês photoluminescence). Para a aplicação em emissores de fótons únicos, os QDs (de InxGa1-xAs) são crescidos axialmente sobre nanofios de GaAs em substrato de GaAs(111)B. A técnica de crescimento escolhida neste caso foi o crescimento seletivo (SAG, do inglês selective area growth) que traz muitas vantagens com relação à qualidade cristalina e futuras litografias para fabricação do dispositivo. Tal técnica consiste na aplicação de uma máscara sobre o substrato com buracos nanométricos dentro dos quais a epitaxia ocorre exclusivamente. Os resultados de crescimento da estrutura foram analisados por MEV, MET, PL e espectroscopia de raios X por dispersão em energia (EDX, do inglês Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy). Em ambos os casos, o crescimento das estruturas finais foi otimizado. Foi possível obter correlações da influência de cada parâmetro de crescimento na morfologia, cristalinidade e composição das estruturas. No caso dos QDs para IBSC, o método usado de recobrimento por In-flush foi determinante para a melhoria da qualidade cristalina das camadas e da homogeneização da altura dos QDs. No caso da estrutura de QD-in-NW, primeiro precisou-se encontrar os parâmetros de crescimento dos nanofios para atingir uma razão de aspecto alta, e só posteriormente estudou-se as condições para que o InAs crescesse axialmente sobre o nanofio. As caracterizações, principalmente a ótica, de ambos os trabalhos indicam que as estruturas propostas foram produzidas. / [en] In contemporary society the dependence on optoelectronic devices for countless daily applications has increased gradually. Particularly in the last decade fields such as energy generation through inorganic solar cells or quantum computation based in exchange of single photons has been heavily funded for their development. The aim of this thesis is defining the production parameters needed to fabricate quantum dots (QD) based on III-V semiconductors with planar geometry for intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) and with nanowire geometry (quantum dot in nanowire, QD-in-NW) for single photon emitter applications. For IBSC, the QDs are generated via self-assembly by Stranski-Krastanow mode. The IBSC s band structure requires a potential well deep enough to have 3 parallel photon absorption in different energy ranges (one is the barrier s energy gap, another is from the valence band to the intermediate band and the third one is from the intermediate band to the top of the barrier). The selected materials were AlxGa1-xAs as barriers, InAs as well, all grown on GaAs(100) substrate. The growth results were analysed by atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning eléctron microscopy (SEM), transmission eléctron microscopy (TEM) and photoluminescence (PL). For the single photon emitters, the QDs (InxGa1-xAs) are grown axially over GaAs nanowires on a GaAs(111)B substrate. The chosen growth technique was the selective area growth (SAG) that brings many advantages in crystal quality and device lithography. This technique consists of applying a mask over the substrate with nanometric holes inside which the epitaxy occurs. The results were analysed by SEM, TEM, PL and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). In both cases, the growth of the structures were optimized for better quality. The growth parameters could be correlated with the structure’s morfology, cristalinity and composition. For the IBSC, a capping method named In-flush was used to increase the crystal quality from the layers and the homogeneity from the QD s heights. For the QD-in-NW, firstly the nanowire s growth was optimized for higher aspect ratio and only then the growth of the InAs QD was optimized for axial growth over the nanowire. In both cases the optical measurements show that the proposed structures were grown successfully.

Neste trabalho estudamos os efeitos polarônicos sobre um gás de elétrons quase bidimensional presente em heteroestruturas semicondutoras (heterojunções e poços quânticos de GaAs-AlGaAs) sob a ação de um campo magnético uniforme aplicado na direção perpendicular a interface, através de teoria de perturbação de segunda ordem. Calculamos a massa ciclotrônica considerando a interação elétron-fonon LO e os efeitos de blindagem e não parabolicidade da banda de condução do GaAs. Os resultados obtidos são comparados com recentes dados experimentais de ressonância ciclotronica e apresentam ótima concordância. Estudamos também a energia de ligação do estado fundamental de uma impureza hidrogenóide localizada no interior de um fio quântico retangular de GaAs envolvido por AlGaAs, como função das dimensões do fio para varias alturas das barreiras de variacional, usando várias formas para a função de onda tentativa do sistema. Consideramos também a contribuição polarônica a energia de ligação. Comparamos nossos resultados com recentes cálculos da energia de ligação, efetuados por outros autores. / In this work we study the polaronic effects on the two dimensional electron gas present in semiconductor heteroestructures (GaAs-AlGaAs heterojunctions and quantum wells) when a uniform magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the interface, using second order perturbation theory. By taking into account the effect of nonparabolicity and screening of the electron-fonon LO interaction the calculated effective mass is compared to the recent experimental date. Good agreement is found with available date. The binding energies of a hydrogenic impurity located in quantum well wires of GaAs surrounded by AlGaAs are calculated as a functions of the size of the wire for several values of the heights of the potential barriers and diferent positions of the impurity inside the wire. We follow a variational approach choosing several trial wave functions for the ground state. The polaronic contribution to the binding energy is considered. We compare our results with those previously obtained by other authors.

Es ist seit einigen Jahren bekannt, dass Elektronen unter bestimmten Bedingungen in dünne Filme eingeschlossen werden können, selbst wenn diese Filme aus Metall bestehen und auf Metall-Substrat aufgebracht werden. In Photoelektronenspektren zeigen diese Filme charakteristische diskrete Energieniveaus, und es hat sich herausgestellt, dass sie zu großen, technisch nutzbaren Effekten führen können, wie der oszillatorischen magnetischen Kopplung in modernen Festplatten-Leseköpfen. <br><br> In dieser Arbeit wird untersucht, inwieweit die der Quantisierung in zweidimensionalen Filmen zu Grunde liegenden Konzepte auf niedrigere Dimensionalität übertragbar sind. Das bedeutet, dass schrittweise von zweidimensionalen Filmen auf eindimensionale Nanostrukturen übergegangen wird. Diese Nanostrukturen sind zum einen die Terrassen auf atomar gestuften Oberflächen, aber auch Atomketten, die auf diese Terrassen aufgebracht werden, bis hin zu einer vollständigen Bedeckung mit atomar dünnen Nanostreifen. Daneben werden Selbstorganisationseffekte ausgenutzt, um zu perfekt eindimensionalen Atomanordnungen auf Oberflächen zu gelangen. <br><br> Die winkelaufgelöste Photoemission ist als Untersuchungsmethode deshalb so geeignet, weil sie das Verhalten der Elektronen in diesen Nanostrukturen in Abhängigkeit von der Raumrichtung zeigt, und unterscheidet sich darin beispielsweise von der Rastertunnelmikroskopie. Damit ist es möglich, deutliche und manchmal überraschend große Effekte der eindimensionalen Quantisierung bei verschiedenen exemplarischen Systemen zum Teil erstmals nachzuweisen. Die für zweidimensionale Filme wesentliche Rolle von Bandlücken im Substrat wird für Nanostrukturen bestätigt. Hinzu kommt jedoch eine bei zweidimensionalen Filmen nicht vorhandene Ambivalenz zwischen räumlicher Einschränkung der Elektronen in den Nanostrukturen und dem Effekt eines Übergitters aus Nanostrukturen sowie zwischen Effekten des Elektronenverhaltens in der Probe und solchen des Messprozesses. Letztere sind sehr groß und können die Photoemissionsspektren dominieren. <br><br> Abschließend wird der Effekt der verminderten Dimensionalität speziell für die d-Elektronen von Mangan untersucht, die zusätzlich starken Wechselwirkungseffekten unterliegen. Auch hierbei treten überraschende Ergebnisse zu Tage. / It has been known for several years that under certain conditions electrons can be confined within thin layers even if these layers consist of metal and are supported by a metal substrate. In photoelectron spectra, these layers show characteristic discrete energy levels and it has turned out that these lead to large effects like the oscillatory magnetic coupling technically exploited in modern hard disk reading heads. <br><br> The current work asks in how far the concepts underlying quantization in two-dimensional films can be transferred to lower dimensionality. This problem is approached by a stepwise transition from two-dimensional layers to one-dimensional nanostructures. On the one hand, these nanostructures are represented by terraces on atomically stepped surfaces, on the other hand by atom chains which are deposited onto these terraces up to complete coverage by atomically thin nanostripes. Furthermore, self organization effects are used in order to arrive at perfectly one-dimensional atomic arrangements at surfaces. <br><br> Angle-resolved photoemission is particularly suited as method of investigation because is reveals the behavior of the electrons in these nanostructures in dependence of the spacial direction which distinguishes it from, e. g., scanning tunneling microscopy. With this method intense and at times surprisingly large effects of one-dimensional quantization are observed for various exemplary systems, partly for the first time. The essential role of bandgaps in the substrate known from two-dimensional systems is confirmed for nanostructures. In addition, we reveal an ambiguity without precedent in two-dimensional layers between spacial confinement of electrons on the one side and superlattice effects on the other side as well as between effects caused by the sample and by the measurement process. The latter effects are huge and can dominate the photoelectron spectra. <br><br> Finally, the effects of reduced dimensionality are studied in particular for the d electrons of manganese which are additionally affected by strong correlation effects. Surprising results are also obtained here. <br><br>----------------------------<br> Die Links zur jeweiligen Source der im Appendix beigefügten Veröffentlichungen befinden sich auf Seite 83 des Volltextes.

No description available.

Neste trabalho estudamos os efeitos polarônicos sobre um gás de elétrons quase bidimensional presente em heteroestruturas semicondutoras (heterojunções e poços quânticos de GaAs-AlGaAs) sob a ação de um campo magnético uniforme aplicado na direção perpendicular a interface, através de teoria de perturbação de segunda ordem. Calculamos a massa ciclotrônica considerando a interação elétron-fonon LO e os efeitos de blindagem e não parabolicidade da banda de condução do GaAs. Os resultados obtidos são comparados com recentes dados experimentais de ressonância ciclotronica e apresentam ótima concordância. Estudamos também a energia de ligação do estado fundamental de uma impureza hidrogenóide localizada no interior de um fio quântico retangular de GaAs envolvido por AlGaAs, como função das dimensões do fio para varias alturas das barreiras de variacional, usando várias formas para a função de onda tentativa do sistema. Consideramos também a contribuição polarônica a energia de ligação. Comparamos nossos resultados com recentes cálculos da energia de ligação, efetuados por outros autores. / In this work we study the polaronic effects on the two dimensional electron gas present in semiconductor heteroestructures (GaAs-AlGaAs heterojunctions and quantum wells) when a uniform magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the interface, using second order perturbation theory. By taking into account the effect of nonparabolicity and screening of the electron-fonon LO interaction the calculated effective mass is compared to the recent experimental date. Good agreement is found with available date. The binding energies of a hydrogenic impurity located in quantum well wires of GaAs surrounded by AlGaAs are calculated as a functions of the size of the wire for several values of the heights of the potential barriers and diferent positions of the impurity inside the wire. We follow a variational approach choosing several trial wave functions for the ground state. The polaronic contribution to the binding energy is considered. We compare our results with those previously obtained by other authors.

Die Dissertation beinhaltet Untersuchungen mittels optischer Rasternahfeldmikroskopie (SNOM)an epitaktisch gewachsenen Halbleiter-Nanostrukturen des Materialsystems GaAs/(Al,Ga)As, sowie Untersuchungen mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie (AFM/MFM) an ferromagnetischen MnAs-Schichten auf GaAs. Der erste Teil der Arbeit widmet sich dem Aufbau und der Wirkungsweise eines neuen SNOM fürden Einsatz bei tiefen Temperaturen. Das Auflösungsvermögen des Mikroskopswird einmal in Hinblick auf die topographische Empfindlichkeit des Scanners in Richtung der Oberflächennormale, andererseits optisch-lateral charakterisiert. Es wird gezeigt, welche Möglichkeiten der Einsatz geätzter, unbedampfter Nahfeldsonden bietet. Im zweiten Teil werden nahfeld-optische Untersuchungen an GaAs-Quantenfilmen und GaAs-Quantendrähten vorgestellt. Die Grenzflächeneigenschaften der Quantenfilmstrukturen wurden per Wachstumsunterbrechung dahingehend beeinflusst, dass inselartige Gebiete konstanter Quantenfilmdicke entstehen, deren lateraler Durchmesser einige hundert Nanometer beträgt. Durch Photolumineszenzspektroskopie im SNOM kann die räumliche Verteilung der Inseln detektiert werden. Die optischen Nahfeldbilder geben einen interessanten Einblick in die Grenzflächenmorphologie des Quantenfilms und ermöglichen so Rückschlüsse auf die Wachstumsprozesse. Quantendrähte aus GaAs wurden in die intrinsische Zone einer p-i-n-Struktur eingebaut. Durch räumlich aufgelöste sowie energie-selektive Anregung von Photoströmen mittels SNOMkann das Verhalten von zusätzlich in der Struktur erzeugten Ladungsträgern auf den Gesamtstromfluss untersucht werden. Die Ergebnisse liefern ein verbessertes Verständnis über denProzess der selektiven Elektrolumineszenz, durch den diese Strukturen gekennzeichnet sind. Im letzten Teil werden strukturelle Untersuchungen an MnAs-Schichten vorgestellt, die auf GaAs(001) gewachsen wurden. Epitaktisch gewachsene MnAs-Schichten auf GaAs(001) zeigen eine Phasenkoexistenzvon ferromagnetischem und paramagnetischem MnAs unterhalb der Curie-Temperatur. Auf Grund dieser Besonderheit kommt es zur Ausbildung von periodischen elastischen Domänen in der Schicht. Die Entwicklung solcher Domänen wird mittels temperaturabhängiger Rasterkraftmikroskopiedirekt beobachtet. / In this thesis, investigations on both epitactically grown GaAs/(Al,Ga)As semiconductor nanostructures using near-field scanning optical microscopy (SNOM) as well as ferromagnetic MnAs films on GaAs using scanning force microscopy are presented.Setup, operation modes, and properties of a new SNOM designed for low-temperature experiments are discussed. In terms of resolution, both topographical sensitivity of the scanner and optical limitsare distinguished. Surprisingly, the use of uncoated optical fibre tips enables sufficient optical resolution, while the transmission increases dramtically compared to conventional SNOM probes. Using the SNOM setup, near-field optical experiments on GaAs quantum wells and GaAs quantum wiresare made. The interface properties of the quantum well structures had been influenced during growth by interrupting the growth process. Thus, island-like areas with constant well thickness are prepared, whose lateraldiameter is in the order of a few hundred nanometers.Near-field optical photoluminescence spectroscopy can detect the spatial distribution of the islands.The near-field optical images provide interesting insight into the interface morphology and henceabout the growth process itself. GaAs sidewall quantum wires had been grown such that they are built in the center of the intrinsic layer of a p-i-n LED structure.Applying the SNOM, spatially refined photocurrents are induced in the structure. The initial localisation of photogeneratedcharge carriers can also be chosen by varying the excitation energy.This enables a detailed study of how additionally generated carriers contribute to the photocurrent signal,the outcome of which provides deeper understanding in the process of a selective electroluminescenceof the structure. In the last part, structural investigations on MnAs film are discussed, which had been grown on GaAS(001) substrates.These films exhibit a phase coexistense of ferromagnetic and paramagnetic MnAs below the Curie temperature. As a result, periodic elastic domains of the coexisting phases are formed. The development of such domains is studied using temperature-dependent (magnetic) scanning force microscopy.The structural effects are discussed in connection with a theoretical model.

No description available.

The charge and spin density correlations in a one dimensional electron gas (1DEG) confined in a semiconductor quantum wire structure at zero temperature are studied. The dielectric formulation of the many--body problem is employed and the longitudinal dielectric function, local-field correction, static structure factor, pair correlation function, ground state energy, compressibility, spin-dependent effective interaction potentials, paramagnon dispersion and static spin response function of the 1DEG are computed within the self-consistent field approximations of Singwi et al., known as the STLS and SSTL. The results are compared with those of other groups, and those obtained for two-dimensional electron gas systems whenever it is possible. It is observed that the SSTL satisfies the compressibility sum rule better than the STLS. Calculating the ground state energy of the 1DEG in unpolarized and fully polarized states, it is shown that both STLS and SSTL predict a Bloch transition for 1DEG systems at low electron densities. Finally, the coupled plasmon-phonon modes in semiconductor quantum wires are calculated within the Fermi and Luttinger liquid theories. The coupling of electrons to bulk longitudinal optical phonons without dispersion and to acoustic phonons via deformation potential with a linear dispersion are considered. Using the dielectric formalism, a unified picture of the collective coupled plasmon-phonon modes is presented. Considerable differences between the predictions of the Fermi and Luttinger liquid approaches at large wave vector values, which may be observed experimentally, are found.

Dans cette thèse nous avons étudié les fluctuations de courant, l'admittance quantique ainsi que la densité d'états pour un nano système en interaction. Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous avons étudié les fluctuations de courant et l'admittance pour un conducteur unidimensionnel, en décrivant le système par un liquide de Tomonaga-Luttinger. Les techniques de bosonisation et de refermionisation permettent d'avoir des résultats exacts. Ces résultats sont appliqués à un conducteur cohérent couplé à un quantum de résistance, et aux états de bord dans le régime de l'effet Hall quantique fractionnaire. Dans le cas d'un conducteur cohérent, le bruit non symétrisé à fréquence finie exhibe un profil différent de celui de la théorie de la diffusion, et la conductance à fréquence finie est directement liée au courant. Dans le cas des états de bord, nous avons établi une relation entre les corrélations de courant et l'admittance dans certaines limites. En particulier, les singularités qui apparaissent dans les corrélations de courant sont celles de l'admittance. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons étudié un fil quantique connecté à deux réservoirs représentés par deux impuretés. Le système est décrit par un liquide de Tomonaga-Luttinger. Nous avons établi et résolu l'équation de Dyson pour la fonction de Green retardée. Ce qui permet de calculer la densité d'états pour un fil quantique homogène puis inhomogène. Dans le cas d'un paramètre d'interaction homogène, l'effet des impuretés modifie le profil de la densité d'états. Dans le cas d'un paramètre d'interaction inhomogène, le calcul de la densité d'états est plus difficile et une approche numérique est indispensable. / In this thesis we focus on the study of the current fluctuations, quantum admittance and density of states of an interacting nano system. The first part of the thesis is related to the calculation of current fluctuations and admittance for one dimensional conductor. The system is described by a Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid. The use of bosonization and refermionization procedures allows us to obtain exact results, valuable whatever the value of the applied voltage, for all frequencies and all temperature regimes. Tow cases are studied. In the first one, we consider a coherent conductor coupled to a quantum of resistance. We find that the finite frequency noise behavior differs from that of the scattering theory, and the finite frequency conductance is directly related to the current. In the second case, we study edge states in the fractional quantum Hall regime. We establish a relationship between the current correlations and the admittance in certain limits. Thus, the singularities observed in the current correlations are those of the admittance. The second part of the thesis is devoted to the study of an interacting quantum wire connected to tow leads modeled as two impurities. The system is described by a Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid. We derived and solved an exact Dyson equation for a retarded Green function. Than we calculate the density of states in two cases, homogeneous quantum wire, and next inhomogeneous one. The effect of the impurities changes the behavior of the density of states for the homogeneous case. In the case of a position depending interaction parameter, the calculation of the density of states is more difficult and a numerical approach is needed.

Selbstorganisierte InAs Nanostrukturen in InP, wie Quantendrähte, Quantenpunkte, und Quantengräben als Referenz, werden bezüglich ihres Wachstums, ihrer Struktur, optischen Eigenschaften und Transporteigenschaften untersucht. Das Stranski-Krastanov Wachstum der Nanostrukturen auf exakt orientiertem und vizinalem InP(001) wird mittels Gasquellen-Molekularstrahlepitaxie untersucht. Ich zeige, dass die Missorientierung des vizinalen InP, weitestgehend unabhängig von den Wachstumsparametern, den Nanostrukturtyp definiert. Optische Polarisation der Interbandübergänge (im 1.55 Mikrometer Bereich) aufgrund des Nanostrukturtyps wird mittels Photolumineszenz- und Transmissionsspektroskopie wird nachgewiesen. Die experimentell unaufwändige 4-Kontakt van der Pauw Hall Messung wird erweitert, um anisotrope Transporteigenschaften zu bestimmen. Der Ladungstägertransport in einer Schicht dicht gepackter, lateral gekoppelter InAs Nanostrukturen ist stark anisotrop mit der Hochbeweglichkeitsrichtung [-110], was parallel zur Richtung der Quantendrähte ist. Die maximalen Anisotropien übersteigen 30 für Elektronen und 100 für Löcher. Die extreme Anisotropie im Falle der Löcher basiert auf diffusem Transport in der [-110], und Hoppingtransport in der [110] direction. Die Elektronenbeweglichkeit bei niedrigen Temperaturen wird duch Grenzflächenrauhigkeitsstreuung in der [110] direction, und Streuung an entfernten Störstellen in der [-110] dominiert. Im Kontext gekoppelter Nanostrukturen, zeige ich, dass die Transportanisotropie auf anisotroper Tunnelkopplung zwischen benachbarten Nanostrukturen beruht, und weniger durch die Form der Nanostruktur bestimmt wird. Transport im Quanten-Hall Regime, und die Schwache Lokalisierung werden untersucht. Ein neuartiges Baulelement basierend auf Gate-konrollierter Transportanisotropie wird vorgeschlagen. Es wird gezeigt, dass modulationsdotierte InAs Quantendrähte für eine Implementierung des Bauelements geeignet sind. / Self-assembled InAs nanostructures in InP, comprising quantum wires, quantum dots, and quantum wells as reference, are studied in terms of their formation, structural properties, optical properties, and anisotropic transport properties. The Stranski-Krastanov growth of InAs nanostructures is studied by gas-source molecular beam epitaxy on both nominally oriented and vicinal InP(001). I demonstrate that the off-cut direction of vicinal substrates - largely independent of growth conditions - determines the nanostructure type. Optical polarization of the interband transitions (in the 1.55 micron wavelength range) arising from the nanostructure type is demonstrated by photoluminescence and transmission spectroscopy. The experimentally convenient four-contact van der Pauw Hall measurement is extended to yield the anisotropic transport properties. The in-plane transport in large ensembles of closely spaced, laterally coupled InAs nanostructures is highly anisotropic with the high-mobility direction [-110], which is parallel to the direction of the quantum wires. The maximum anisotropies exceed 30 for electrons, and 100 for holes. The extreme anisotropy for holes is due to diffusive transport in the [-110], and hopping transport in the [110] direction. The principal electron mobilities at low temperature are dominated by interface roughness scattering in the [110] direction, and by remote impurity scattering in the [-110] direction. In the context of coupled nanostructure, I demonstrate that the transport anisotropy results from directionally anisotropic tunnel coupling between adjacent nanostructures rather than from the nanostructure shape anisotropy. The Quantum-Hall regime, and the weak-localization contribution to conductivity is studied. A novel 5-terminal electronic switching device based on gate-controlled transport anisotropy is proposed. Modulation-doped InAs/InP quantum wires are demonstrated to be a candidate for implementation of the device.