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Prevention science has suggested that universal screening can enhance educational and mental health outcomes in the schools (Greenberg et al., 2003). A three-tier model of prevention has been proposed by Albers, Glover, and Kratochwill (2007) and Brown-Chidsey and Steege (2005) employing universal screening assessments of basic academic skills at Tier-1. Curriculum-based measurement maze (CBM-maze) probes are universal screeners that were developed as measures of reading comprehension. They are characterized as easy to administer, time-efficient, valid, and reliable (Parker, Hasbrouck, & Tindal, 1992). CBM-maze probes are short stories consisting of 400 words where every seventh word is omitted and replaced with three answer choices. Students are given 3-minutes to read the passage silently and select a word from the answer choices that restores the meaning of the story. Maze probes have been utilized as reading comprehension assessments for universal screening (Tier 1) and progress monitoring (Tier 2 and Tier 3; Espin, Deno, Maruyama, & Cohen, 1989; D. Fuchs & Fuchs, 1992). The current research study was conducted to further extend the research on the reliability and validity of CBM-maze probes. More specifically, it investigated if there were any differences between 1-minute, 2-minute, and 3-minute time frames, alternate form reliability, concurrent validity, and social validity of the maze probes. Results indicated differences in correct word selections (CWS) between 1-minute, 2-minute, and 3-minute time frames with significant interaction effects noted for the 2-minute maze probe. Alternate form reliability correlation were statistically significant and moderately strong (r = .47 to .71). Concurrent validity correlations between the STAR Reading norm referenced test (computer adaptive reading comprehension test) and CBM-maze probes yielded statistically significant and moderate correlations (r = .30 to .50). Tabulations of the assessment rating scale indicated that students perceived maze probes as acceptable measures for reading comprehension. Implications for practice, cautions in interpreting the results, and future directions are discussed. / School Psychology

The goal of this study was to examine the use of a technological and engineering design based learning (T/E DBL) challenge as a strategy for facilitating student comprehension of nonfiction/informational text inclusive of graphical devices. The data for this mixed methods exploratory case study were collected using a variety of instruments which assessed the prior knowledge, general graphical device comprehension, and reading comprehension of both familiar and unfamiliar texts in order to form a detailed picture of the six participants throughout the study. The six participants were examined as whole group and as reading level dyads (below, on, and above grade level) as they progressed through three T/E DBL challenges that were developed to support graphical device comprehension instruction. T/E DBL was found to increase reader text interactions and graphical device usage, support the development of general graphical device comprehension for diagrams and tables, improve comprehension of unfamiliar science texts, and provide particular benefit to below grade level readers. The results of this study demonstrate the need for further research into the benefits of T/E DBL for reading instruction, particularly of graphical devices. This research should include a further exploration of the potential benefits for graphical device comprehension and comprehension of unfamiliar science and engineering texts that include graphical devices, as well as the curricular, training, and implementation needs. / Doctor of Philosophy / This study examined how challenging fifth grade students to design a technology to meet an engineering need can support student understanding of nonfiction/informational texts which include informational graphics (graphical devices). The participants of this study were asked to create designs of different types of technology which would benefit from the information in the provided informational texts and graphics. A variety of data were gathered on six fifth grade participants as they worked through a serious of design challenges that were paired with reading passages that included graphics (graphical devices). Graphical device instruction using design challenges was found to increase readers' interactions with texts and their usage of graphical devices, support the development of comprehension for diagrams and tables, improve comprehension of unfamiliar science texts, and provide particular benefit to below grade level readers. The results of this study demonstrate the need for further research into the benefits of using design challenges for reading instruction, particularly of graphical devices.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the influence of different expository text structures on fourth and sixth grade students' written retellings. Although previous research has shown that text structure can assist in understanding and recalling text, little work has been done with the use of different expository text structures by elementary school students, who typically have difficulty with expository text. The basic questions of the study were (1) Is there a difference in students' use of structure or number of idea units? (a) in retellings of passages presented in four different structures? (b) in the retellings of students in grade four compared with those in grade six? (2) Is there an interaction between structural pattern and grade level in the use of structure or the number of idea units? (3) Is there an interaction between structural pattern of text and topic in the use of structure or the number of idea units? Subjects were thirty-nine students in each grade with average and above average reading ability. Using passages in four top-level structures identified by Meyer (1975) -- collection/description, problem/solution, comparison/ contrast, and cause/effect--subjects read and immediately retold passages in writing. The retellings were scored for the use of the author’s original structure and the number of targeted idea units. Hypotheses were tested using a 4 (text structure) x 4 (topic) x 2 (grade level) factorial analysis of variance for each dependent variable. The analysis indicated the following results: (1) For the dependent variable of level of text structure use, there was a Significant difference for grade level and interactions between topic and structure. There were no interactions between grade and structure. (2) For the dependent variable of number of idea units, there were was a Significant difference for grade level, but none for text structure. There were no interactions between grade and structure and none between topic and structure. Subjects were found to use the original structure for problem/ solution more than for the other three patterns. Differences in text structure were found to have little effect on the number of idea units in the students' retellings. Developmental differences were evident both in the use of structure and in the number of idea units produced by fourth and sixth grade students. / Ed. D.

Advances in computer technology have hastened the development and dissemination of a wide range of electronic media into the workplace and educational settings. Electronic media offer many advantages, including quicker access to information and easier information sharing among professions. However, electronic reading media have still not been well integrated into these settings, especially for non-routine cognitive tasks like active reading. Conflicting results from different measures (e.g., performance, preference) have been reported regarding their efficacy. Despite the fact that there are no significant performance differences between reading from paper and reading from electronic media, people still show a preference for reading from paper and resist changes in the workplace, which often results in the abandonment of electronic reading media. Therefore, in order to maximize the potential benefits from electronic reading media, researchers and designers need more valid ways to assess the effectiveness of electronic reading media than relying on existing methods using outcome-based measures of reading. Although the act of reading is primarily a cognitive process, there are relatively few comprehensive empirical reports on how the use of different reading media impacts cognitive processes like reading strategies. Moreover, researchers have rarely considered generational differences, even though generation-specific reading practices could significantly affect readers' current reading practices using different media. Therefore, the overall objective of this research was to develop and evaluate a new method to test the effectiveness of reading medium in terms of supporting design and evaluation. Specifically, this research examined how reading strategies can be used as a process measure. The research consisted of three parts: (1) investigating readers' use of reading strategies using different types of media, (2) identifying the relationship between readers' use of reading strategies and their performance and subjective response, and (3) identifying the relationship between readers' use of reading strategies and cognitive load. Resultant findings are expected to improve how we measure the effectiveness of electronic reading media. First, readers' use of reading strategies for different types of media was examined and associated generational differences were investigated. A laboratory experiment was conducted in which three generations of participants (Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y) were asked to perform an active reading task (a simulated work-related reading task) with three types of media (paper, computer, and iPad). Readers' uses of reading strategies were identified from task observation and Retrospective Think Aloud (RTA) sessions. Quantitative analyses revealed significant differences in readers' use of reading strategies, and which depended on both the type of media and individual attributes (generation). Detailed qualitative analyses were conducted to help explain the underlying reasons for these differences in the use of reading strategies. Second, based on the identified reading strategies, the relationships between readers' use of reading strategies and their performance and subjective responses were examined. Such outcome measures have traditionally been used to assess the efficacy of different reading media. However, previous studies have generated conflicting results and did not clearly demonstrate the underlying aspects that influence readers' performance and subjective responses. The results of this study showed a clear association between readers' use of reading strategies and their performance and subjective responses. Accordingly, it was revealed that participants who used the reading strategies they developed in their formative period exhibited higher subjective responses. Third, again based on the identified reading strategies, the association between readers' use of reading strategies and cognitive load was examined. Reading from electronic media has been regarded as requiring more cognitive resources than reading from paper. However, it has not been well understood precisely which aspects of reading from different media actually influence cognitive load in terms of cognitive and metacognitive perspectives. The results reported herein showed an association between reading strategies and cognitive load. Therefore, this study revealed that the use of reading strategies was critical to their cognitive load. Overall, this research demonstrated how reading strategies could be used as process measures to assess the effectiveness of specific media for active reading activities. The way in which people interact with a text (readers' use of reading strategies) was affected by the medium, as well as by generation-specific reading practices. The extent to which reading strategies can explain reading differences was confirmed, by investigating the associations between readers' use of reading strategies and other measures. These findings can contribute to the design of reading media and help to determine the most suitable reading media for active reading activities (e.g., work-related reading activities). In addition, the findings also support the importance of culturally situated experience for non-routine cognitive activities and the use of an integrated approach that takes into account both cognitive and cultural aspects in designing human-computer interaction for non-routine cognitive activities. / Ph. D.

This study investigated the developmental acquisition of cognitive structures, which influence the encoding and retrieval of story information. Examined were the between and within group differences among young children in the acquisition of story schema and in the processing of story information. A series of four experimental tasks were administered individually at the start of the academic year and again at the end to each of the 156 four, five, six and seven year olds in the sample. Tasks chosen were selected on the basis of research suggesting their viability as measures of schema acquisition and related processing. Specifically, they assessed: metacognitive knowledge of story structure; detection of structural deviation; recognition and retrieval of missing information; and inferring between and within episodic relationships. In a fifth task, first and second graders wrote two stories in the spring of the year based on picture stimuli. In addition, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test was administered to each subject in the fall of the year. The first two hypotheses predicted significant between group differences at the fall administration of the tasks and significant within group gains over the course of the year. In general, findings supported these hypotheses (p <.05). The third hypothesis predicted that fall performance on tasks one through four would account for a significant amount of the variance in reading growth over the year. This hypothesis was supported for the first graders relative to tasks one, two, and three (p<.10). For these subjects, level of structural complexity present in written stories was significantly different for good versus poor readers (p<.05). For second grade subjects, performance on task four was shown to contribute a significant amount of the variance in reading growth (p<.07). In general, correlations between performance on the tasks and IQ were low. Findings from task one suggest that young children acquire the concept of a story in the same developmental manner that other concepts and knowledge structures are believed to be acquired. Children's performance on the experimental tasks two, three and four suggest age related differences in monitoring, recognition, reconstruction and retrieval operations on story information. However, improvement in the ability to deal with story information does not appear to be attributable to the developmental acquisition of schemata but rather to its increased accessibility, engagement, and efficiency as a processing and production mechanism. / Ed. D.

Organized as a set of three manuscripts, this research draws attention to the academic learning experiences for adolescents with particular attention to adolescents with limited reading proficiency and the use of single case design research as a viable option for discovering solutions to a persisting research-to-practice gap in education. Data analyses included a systematic literature review with findings synthesized into themes using qualitative methods, a multiple probe single case design, a non-parametric statistical analysis, and effect size calculations. The first article is a systematic literature review on the relationship between oral reading fluency and reading comprehension for adolescent with limited reading proficiency (ALRP) in grades 6-12. The results of 22 studies were synthesized into five themes and results suggest that knowledge of an adolescent's ORF provides helpful information about his or her reading profile, but is not sufficient to evaluate instructional needs nor measure progress. The article concludes with a discussion on the envelopment of ORF within the Simple View of Reading specifically for adolescent readers as well as implications for practitioners, researchers, policymakers, and assessment developers. The second article presents the findings from a study on the influence of a word level intervention on multiple reading component skills. Six students in two different intervention classes in Virginia participated. The primary analysis was based on a single case design, specifically a multiple probe across participants and settings design. Visual analyses of baseline and intervention phase data indicated a functional relationship between the word level intervention and multiple reading component skills. Statistical analysis (Tau-U) supported this finding with aggregated small effect sizes (0.14 to 0.54) for word identification, accuracy, and automaticity, and one moderate effect size (.70) for prosody. Secondary analysis showed a significant effect for improved strategy knowledge and skill with a 0.90 effect size, but no statistically significant group effects for silent reading fluency and sentence comprehension. The third manuscript is a broad overview of adolescent literacy instructional recommendations and presents a vision for how all teachers contribute to the development of strategic learners when they support content learning through literacy-rich classroom environments. / Doctor of Philosophy / This research draws attention to the academic learning experiences for adolescents, with particular attention to adolescents with limited reading proficiency. The first article examines the relationship between oral reading fluency and reading comprehension for adolescent with limited reading proficiency (ALRP) in grades 6-12. Results suggest that knowledge of an adolescent's oral reading fluency (ORF) provides helpful information but is not sufficient to evaluate instructional needs nor measure progress. Discussion includes where ORF fits within the Simple View of Reading theory specifically for adolescent readers as well as implications for practitioners, researchers, policymakers, and assessment developers. The second article presents findings from a study on the influence of a reading intervention on multiple reading component skills of adolescents with limited reading proficiency. Six students in two different intervention classes in Virginia participated. Visual analyses of individual baseline and intervention phase data indicated a functional relationship between the reading intervention and multiple reading component skills. Additionally, there was a significant group effect for improved strategy knowledge and skill, but no statistically significant group effects for silent reading fluency nor sentence comprehension. Discussion includes limitations and implications for future research, intervention teacher practice and school improvement leaders. The third article gives a broad overview of adolescent literacy instructional recommendations and presents a vision for how all teachers contribute to the development of strategic learners when they support content learning through literacy-rich classroom environments.

Syftet med litteraturstudien är att granska hur språkdidaktisk forskning lyfter fram lässtrategier samt hur lässtrategier kan gynna flerspråkiga elevers läsförståelse och läsutveckling. I studien har det analyserats forskning som inhämtats via databaser och kompletterande sökningar. Resultatet i den föreliggande studien visar att fem strategimodeller förekom mer frekvent än andra i språkdidaktisk forskning: globala, problemlösnings- och stödstrategier, Reciprocal Teaching, djup och ytlig bearbetnings-strategi, strategier för tänkande på högre nivå och social-kontextuella lässtrategier. En slutsats som kan dras är att forskning inte verkar kunna enas om någon allmän kategorisering av lässtrategier. Vi kan också konstatera att de analyserade studiernas resultat varierar i frågan om huruvida lässtrategier gynnar flerspråkiga elevers läsförståelse eller inte. Mycket tyder på att elever behöver uppnå en grundläggande språkfärdighet i andraspråket innan lässtrategier kan bli betydelsefulla. En annan slutsats som kan dras är att explicit strategiundervisning verkar krävas för att flerspråkiga elever ska utveckla lämpliga lässtrategier. Ytterligare en slutsats är att eleverna kan använda lässtrategier utan att vara medvetna om varför eller i vilket syfte strategierna används.

This research delves into the influence of visual aids on vocabulary development amongEnglish as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly in fostering independent readingskills. Numerous studies have debated the efficacy of integrating visuals, such as pictures,with text in enhancing reading comprehension. These visual supports have been observed toheighten motivation levels among EFL learners during the vocabulary acquisition process.The primary focus lies in examining how visual aids impact vocabulary acquisition andcontribute to the development of independent reading comprehension. Conducted primarilythrough searches in primary sources like ERIC and ERC, this study utilized keywords such as“vocabulary acquisition,” “EFL,” “visual support," and "primary school" spanning a decade(2019-2022). The findings from these studies concerning visual aids and vocabularyacquisition are then contextualized within the Swedish National English curriculum andrelevant theoretical frameworks. However, due to the scarcity of research specific to certainage groups, further studies are deemed necessary to explore the backgrounds of various EFLlearners and devise more effective methods for facilitating vocabulary acquisition.