Schizotypy, a complex construct linked to schizophrenia-related traits, encompasses positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms. This study offers a review of the concept of schizotypy, including its historical evolution, tracing it from Bleuler's early mention in 1911 to Meehl's continuum model. Embracing a dimensional perspective, this research underscores the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding schizotypy. Deficits in sustained attention and working memory within schizotypy remain underexplored, with prior studies yielding inconsistent results. Adaptive functioning deficits in individuals with schizotypy are also inadequately understood. Examining a college student population, this investigation utilized scores on the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire – Brief Revised (SPQ-BR) to psychometrically define schizotypy, and it used the Community Assessment of Psychic Experiences (CAPE-42), World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0 (WHODAS 2.0), Continuous Performance Task (CPT-IP) and Visuospatial n-Back Task to assess the hypotheses. This was accomplished by comparing 60 individuals in the schizotypy group with 60 carefully matched controls. Contrary to expectations, those with schizotypy exhibited superior performance on sustained attention and visuospatial working memory tasks compared to controls, challenging the established literature, and warranting replication. The study addresses methodological gaps by using carefully matched control groups and employing innovative online cognitive tests. Despite observed cognitive strengths in performance, a paradox emerged as schizotypal individuals self-reported lower cognitive functioning, suggesting the need to focus on metacognition in schizotypy in future studies. This study underscores the need for a comprehensive systematic assessment of emerging young adult populations to understand their current psychological functioning relative to other community samples. The association between schizotypy, positive psychotic-like experiences, and increased self-reported disability suggests a need for the development of preventive interventions. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HITOP) is suggested as a promising assessment system for schizophrenia spectrum disorders in college students.

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Experiência Anômalas são comuns na população em geral e são, muitas vezes, confundidas com sintomas psicóticos, sem necessariamente serem patológicas. Este estudo teve como objetivo verificar a prevalência das experiências anômalas em uma amostra composta por quatro diferentes grupos da população (Médiuns (n=40), Consulentes (n=36), ARNM (n=40) e Ateus (n=42)), de modo a conhecer os tipos de experiências vivenciadas e sua relevância, relacionando-as com o perfil sociodemográfico e religioso/espiritual dos experienciadores, correlacionando esses dados com qualidade de vida (em dois momentos T0 e T1), esquizotipia, e o diagnóstico diferencial de transtornos mentais. Para a coleta de dados, foi elaborado e aplicado o Q-PREA (Questionário de Prevalência e Relevância de Experiências Anômalas) com 43 itens, juntamente com o MINI-PLUS (Entrevista Psiquiátrica de Transtornos Mentais), o O-LIFE-R (Inventário Reduzido Oxford-Liverpool de Sentimentos e Experiências, que avalia quatro fatores de Esquizotipia), o WHOQOL-BREF (Instrumento de Avaliação da Qualidade de Vida da Organização Mundial de Saúde versão abreviada) e o WHOQOL- SRPB (Instrumento de Avaliação da Qualidade de Vida relacionada à Espiritualidade, Religião e Crenças Pessoais da OMS). Dos 158 respondentes (idades de 18 a 64 anos) que participaram da pesquisa, 100,0% alegaram ter vivenciado pelo menos uma experiência anômala. Em relação aos tipos de EAs experienciadas, houve prevalência de 93,7% de Experiências Relacionadas a Psi e de Sonho ESP 63,9%, de ESP em Vigília 79,7%, Sonho Lúcido 69,0% e Experiência Mística 58,2%. Foram encontradas diferenças significantes entre os grupos em termos de gênero, renda, estado civil, religião e religiosidade e crenças de maneira geral. Verificou-se também que a prevalência de experiências anômalas no grupo dos Médiuns foi superior em relação aos demais grupos, e que Médiuns são os que mais crêem em experiências anômalas, reencarnação, em vida após a morte e em práticas alternativas. O grupo ARNM foi o que mais relatou mudanças de atitude em decorrência das EAs. Médiuns e membros do grupo ARNM relataram que mudaram mais suas crenças em função das EAs e que o grupo dos Médiuns foi o que mais sofreu influência das EAs na tomada de decisão. Tal influência está significativamente relacionada à atribuição de causalidade feita para as experiências anômalas vivenciadas. As atribuições de causalidade são coerentes com a crença, adesão ou postura religiosa dos experienciadores. Houve prevalência atual de 36,7% de Transtornos de Ansiedade na amostra, 17,1% de Transtorno Depressivo e 8,2% de Transtorno Bipolar. A prevalência de Algum Transtorno de Ansiedade foi maior no grupo dos Ateus e de Transtornos Depressivos no grupo dos Consulentes. Os fatores de Esquizotipia se correlacionaram negativamente com QV, e Desorganização Cognitiva, Anedonia Introvertida e Não Conformidade Impulsiva se correlacionaram com piores níveis em todos as domínios de QV. O Transtorno de Ansiedade Generalizada esteve associado com pior QV em todos os domínios. Anedonia Introvertida se correlacionou positiva e significativamente com Transtorno Depressivo Atual. Houve correlação positiva e significativa entre Transtorno de Ansiedade Generalizada e Desorganização Cognitiva e Não Conformidade Impulsiva. Também houve correlação positiva e significativa entre Desorganização Cognitiva e Transtornos Depressivos e Ansiosos (A) e com Qualquer Transtorno. Os dados foram discutidos em detalhes, enfatizando-se a complexidade de suas associações e correlações. Os resultados não são conclusivos, mas apontam tendências que já foram encontradas em outros estudos e deverão ser exploradas de forma mais aprofundada em estudos futuros / Anomalous Experiences are common in the general population and are often confused with psychotic symptoms without necessarily being pathological. This study aimed to verify the prevalence of anomalous experiences in a sample composed of four different groups of the population (Mediums (n=40), Consultants (n=36), ARNM (n=40) and Atheists (n=42), in order to know the types of experiences and their relevance, relating them to the sociodemographic and religious / spiritual profile of the experiencers, correlating these data with quality of life (in two moments T0 and T1), schizotypy, and differential diagnosis of mental disorders. For the data collection, the Q-PREA (Prevalence Questionnaire and Relevance of Anomalous Experiences) with 43 items was elaborated and applied, along with the MINI-PLUS (Psychiatric Interview of Mental Disorders); The WHO-LIFE-R (Reduced Inventory of Feelings and Experiences, Oxford-Liverpool, which evaluates four Schizotypy factors), the WHOQOL-BREF (World Health Organization Life Instrument Assessment) and WHOQOL-SRPB (Life Quality Assessment Instrument related to Spirituality, Religion and Personal Beliefs). Of the 158 respondents (ages 18-64) who participated in the survey, 100.0% reported experiencing at least one anomalous experience. Regarding the types of AEs experienced, there was a prevalence of 93.7% of psi related experiences, and 63.9% of ESP Dreams, 79.7% of ESP in Vigil, 69.0% of Lucid Dream and 58.2% of Mystical Experiences. Significant differences were found between groups in terms of gender, income, marital status, religion and religiosity, and beliefs in general. It was also verified that the prevalence of anomalous experiences in the group of Mediums was superior in relation to the other groups, and that Mediums are those who most believe in anomalous experiences, reincarnation, life after death and in \"alternative practices\". The ARNM group reported the most changes in attitude as a result of the AEs. Mediums and members of the ARNM group reported that they changed their beliefs more because of AEs and the Medium group was the one most affected by the AEs in decision making. Such influence is significantly related to the attribution of causality made for the anomalous experiences experiencers. The attributions of causality are consistent with the belief, adherence or religious posture of the experiencers. There was a current prevalence of 36.7% of Anxiety Disorders in the sample, 17.1% of Depressive Disorder e 8.2% of Bipolar Disorder. The prevalence of some Anxiety Disorders was higher in the Atheist group and Depressive Disorders in the Consultants group. Schizotypy factors were negatively correlated with QOL and Cognitive Disorganization, Introved Anhedonia and Impulsive Nonconformity correlated with worse levels in all QOL domains. Generalized Anxiety Disorder was associated with poorer QOL in all domains. Anhedonia Introverted correlated positively and significantly with Current Depressive Disorder. There was a positive and significant correlation between Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Cognitive Disorganization and Impulsive Non Conformity. There was also a positive and significant correlation between Cognitive Disorganization and Depressive and Anxious Disorders (A) and with Any Disorder. The data were discussed in details, emphasizing the complexity of their associations and correlations. The results are not conclusive, but point to trends that have already been found in other studies and should be explored in more depth in future studies

Bei Untersuchungen zur klassischen Konditionierung mit mehreren prädiktiven Hinweisreizen konnte in den letzten Jahren gezeigt werden, daß Personen mit schizophrenen Spektrumsstörungen Besonderheiten beim Erlernen von Ereignisrelationen aufweisen. Bei den in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten Experimenten wird assoziatives Lernen bei Gesunden und bei Personen mit schizophrenen Spektrumsstörungen einer elektrophysiologischen Betrachtung zugänglich gemacht. Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein modifiziertes Reizinteraktionsparadigma verwendet, bei dem mit Hilfe zweier Hinweisreize ein Zielreiz vorhergesagt werden soll. Dabei wurde das prädiktive Potential eines Hinweisreizes konstant gehalten. Die Änderung der prädiktiven Validität des zweiten Hinweisreizes führte zu zwei Versuchsbedingungen: In einer war dieser Hinweisreiz ein guter Prädiktor für den Targetreiz, in der anderen ein schlechter Prädiktor. Die Kontingenzurteile der unselektierten und der niedrigschizotypischen Probanden sind durch eine kompetitive Beziehung der Hinweisreize charakterisiert. Die Kontingenzen eines Hinweisreizes werden unterschätzt, wenn ein zweiter besser zur Vorhersage des Targets geeignet ist. Die Kontingenzurteile der hochschizotypischen Probanden weisen dieses Muster nicht auf. Wird hier ein Hinweisreiz als ein valider Prädiktor für den Zielreiz erkannt, fällt auch die Beurteilung für die Kontingenzbeziehung zwischen dem zweiten Reiz und dem Zielreiz höher aus. Die elektrophysiologischen Daten unterstützen die Auffassung, daß nach jedem Lerndurchgang eine Fehlerkorrektur stattfindet. Normale und Schizotypiker unterscheiden sich diesbezüglich nicht. Gruppenunterschiede gibt es allerdings bei der durch die Hinweisreize ausgelösten N150, deren Amplitude bei den Schizotypikern an temporo-okzipitalen Ableitorten kleiner ist. Der Reizkompetitionseffekt konnte nur in der Versuchsbedingung induziert werden, die eine hohe Arbeitsgedächtnisauslastung erforderte. Die Bedeutung dieser Ergebnisse wird vor dem Hintergrund des aktuellen Forschungsstands diskutiert. / Several studies of classical conditioning with more than one predictive stimulus report that persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders have deviances in learning how related to each other. I used a modified cue interaction paradigm to make associative learning accessible to an electrophysiological investigation. Participants had to predict a target stimulus based on two preceding cues, keeping the predictive potential of one cue constant. The predicitve validity of the second cue changed, yielding two different validity conditions: in one condition the second cue was a very good predictor of the target cue, in the other validity condition this cue predicted the target at random level. Judgements of contigencies of unselected probands and psychometric selected low schizotypals between target and each cue can be described as "competitive": Contingencies between one cue and target were judged lower if a second cue was a better predictor for the target, whereas contigency judgements of psychometric selected schizotypals can be described as "cooperative": If one cue is judged as being a relative valid predictor, the contingency between the second cue and target were also judged higher. Electrophysiogical dates supports the view of correcting errors after each learning trial. There seems to be no difference between high and low schizotypes. Differences on group-level appeared on cue-evoked event-related potentials, especially on the occipito-temporal N150-amplitudes, which were smaller in schizotypes. Cue-Competition could only induced in the low working memory load version of the cue competition paradigm. The relevance of these results are discussed with reference to recent research on associative learning and schizophrenia.

Kreativität – die Generierung und Verwertung von Ideen – und Psychopathologie werden schon seit langem miteinander in Verbindung gebracht. Jedoch wurde der Einfluss interkultureller Faktoren bisher weitgehend in der Fachliteratur ignoriert. Die vorliegende Dissertation zeigt, dass (1) Kreativität und Selbstverwirklichung kaum miteinander assoziiert sind, dass (2) Kreativität allerdings stark mit schizotyper Persönlichkeitsstörung verbunden ist, jedoch zeigen Menschen mit schöpferischen Leistungen verminderte Schizotypie-Symptome und es gibt einen Geschlechterunterschiede. Deshalb zeigt diese Dissertation (3), dass die Assoziation zwischen Kreativität und Schizotypie durch einen kulturellen Faktor (Deutsch, Russisch) moderiert wird. Die Ergebnisse werden diskutiert im Hinblick auf die kultur-unabhängige Validität der Konstrukte Kreativität, Schizotypie und Selbstverwirklichung, hinsichtlich psychometrischer Probleme bei der Erfassung dieser Konstrukte und hinsichtlich der Rolle für die allgemeine und spezifische mentale Gesundheit. Zukünftige Studien sollten eine wie hier vorgeschlagene Unterscheidung zwischen schöpferischen Leistungen und Kreativität als kognitives Konstrukt bzw. als Teil psychopathologischer oder persönlichkeitsrelevanter Aspekte vornehmen. Darüber hinaus sind die Hinzunahme von Aspekten, die Kultur, Geschlecht und Alter unterscheiden, sinnvoll. Unsere Resultate leisten einen Beitrag zur kulturellen Psychologie, indem sie das Wissen erweitern, wie die Kreativität-Schizotypie Assoziation durch kulturelle Faktoren beeinflusst wird und inwieweit schöpferische Leistungen und kognitive kreative Fähigkeiten diesbezüglich divergieren. Dies bedeutet, dass der humanistische Ansatz unterstützt wird, welcher zeigt, dass Selbstverwirklichung und kreative Fähigkeiten nicht unmittelbar auf ähnliche Persönlichkeitseigenschaften zurückzuführen sind. / Creativity – the generation of novel and appropriate ideas – and psychopathology have been associated for a long time. However, the impact of cross-cultural influence has been somewhat neglected in the literature. The present dissertation demonstrates that (1) creativity is barely related with self-actualization and that, nevertheless, (2) creativity has a strong association with schizotypal personality disorder. However, people with real-life creative achievements showed decreased schizotypy and there are gender differences regarding creative capacities. (3) The creativity – schizotypy link is likely to be moderated by cultural differences between Russians and Germans. Results are discussed with regard to culture-independent validity of the constructs creativity, schizotypy, and self-actualization, with regard to the problem of psychometrical assessment of these constructs, and with regard to a role of creativity in good mental health. Future studies might account for how real-life creativity differs from cognitive creative abilities in other psychopathological and personality aspects, how culture influences the creativity – self-actualization association, and whether the association of creativity with schizotypy and self-actualization is consistent in other age groups. Conclusively, these results contribute to cultural psychology of creativity by extending how the creativity – schizotypy association varies between cultures, as well as by pointing out the differences between real-life creative achievements and cognitive creative abilities. Furthermore, the results extend the humanistic approach showing that self-actualization and creative abilities may not rely on similar personality characteristics.

Experiência Anômalas são comuns na população em geral e são, muitas vezes, confundidas com sintomas psicóticos, sem necessariamente serem patológicas. Este estudo teve como objetivo verificar a prevalência das experiências anômalas em uma amostra composta por quatro diferentes grupos da população (Médiuns (n=40), Consulentes (n=36), ARNM (n=40) e Ateus (n=42)), de modo a conhecer os tipos de experiências vivenciadas e sua relevância, relacionando-as com o perfil sociodemográfico e religioso/espiritual dos experienciadores, correlacionando esses dados com qualidade de vida (em dois momentos T0 e T1), esquizotipia, e o diagnóstico diferencial de transtornos mentais. Para a coleta de dados, foi elaborado e aplicado o Q-PREA (Questionário de Prevalência e Relevância de Experiências Anômalas) com 43 itens, juntamente com o MINI-PLUS (Entrevista Psiquiátrica de Transtornos Mentais), o O-LIFE-R (Inventário Reduzido Oxford-Liverpool de Sentimentos e Experiências, que avalia quatro fatores de Esquizotipia), o WHOQOL-BREF (Instrumento de Avaliação da Qualidade de Vida da Organização Mundial de Saúde versão abreviada) e o WHOQOL- SRPB (Instrumento de Avaliação da Qualidade de Vida relacionada à Espiritualidade, Religião e Crenças Pessoais da OMS). Dos 158 respondentes (idades de 18 a 64 anos) que participaram da pesquisa, 100,0% alegaram ter vivenciado pelo menos uma experiência anômala. Em relação aos tipos de EAs experienciadas, houve prevalência de 93,7% de Experiências Relacionadas a Psi e de Sonho ESP 63,9%, de ESP em Vigília 79,7%, Sonho Lúcido 69,0% e Experiência Mística 58,2%. Foram encontradas diferenças significantes entre os grupos em termos de gênero, renda, estado civil, religião e religiosidade e crenças de maneira geral. Verificou-se também que a prevalência de experiências anômalas no grupo dos Médiuns foi superior em relação aos demais grupos, e que Médiuns são os que mais crêem em experiências anômalas, reencarnação, em vida após a morte e em práticas alternativas. O grupo ARNM foi o que mais relatou mudanças de atitude em decorrência das EAs. Médiuns e membros do grupo ARNM relataram que mudaram mais suas crenças em função das EAs e que o grupo dos Médiuns foi o que mais sofreu influência das EAs na tomada de decisão. Tal influência está significativamente relacionada à atribuição de causalidade feita para as experiências anômalas vivenciadas. As atribuições de causalidade são coerentes com a crença, adesão ou postura religiosa dos experienciadores. Houve prevalência atual de 36,7% de Transtornos de Ansiedade na amostra, 17,1% de Transtorno Depressivo e 8,2% de Transtorno Bipolar. A prevalência de Algum Transtorno de Ansiedade foi maior no grupo dos Ateus e de Transtornos Depressivos no grupo dos Consulentes. Os fatores de Esquizotipia se correlacionaram negativamente com QV, e Desorganização Cognitiva, Anedonia Introvertida e Não Conformidade Impulsiva se correlacionaram com piores níveis em todos as domínios de QV. O Transtorno de Ansiedade Generalizada esteve associado com pior QV em todos os domínios. Anedonia Introvertida se correlacionou positiva e significativamente com Transtorno Depressivo Atual. Houve correlação positiva e significativa entre Transtorno de Ansiedade Generalizada e Desorganização Cognitiva e Não Conformidade Impulsiva. Também houve correlação positiva e significativa entre Desorganização Cognitiva e Transtornos Depressivos e Ansiosos (A) e com Qualquer Transtorno. Os dados foram discutidos em detalhes, enfatizando-se a complexidade de suas associações e correlações. Os resultados não são conclusivos, mas apontam tendências que já foram encontradas em outros estudos e deverão ser exploradas de forma mais aprofundada em estudos futuros / Anomalous Experiences are common in the general population and are often confused with psychotic symptoms without necessarily being pathological. This study aimed to verify the prevalence of anomalous experiences in a sample composed of four different groups of the population (Mediums (n=40), Consultants (n=36), ARNM (n=40) and Atheists (n=42), in order to know the types of experiences and their relevance, relating them to the sociodemographic and religious / spiritual profile of the experiencers, correlating these data with quality of life (in two moments T0 and T1), schizotypy, and differential diagnosis of mental disorders. For the data collection, the Q-PREA (Prevalence Questionnaire and Relevance of Anomalous Experiences) with 43 items was elaborated and applied, along with the MINI-PLUS (Psychiatric Interview of Mental Disorders); The WHO-LIFE-R (Reduced Inventory of Feelings and Experiences, Oxford-Liverpool, which evaluates four Schizotypy factors), the WHOQOL-BREF (World Health Organization Life Instrument Assessment) and WHOQOL-SRPB (Life Quality Assessment Instrument related to Spirituality, Religion and Personal Beliefs). Of the 158 respondents (ages 18-64) who participated in the survey, 100.0% reported experiencing at least one anomalous experience. Regarding the types of AEs experienced, there was a prevalence of 93.7% of psi related experiences, and 63.9% of ESP Dreams, 79.7% of ESP in Vigil, 69.0% of Lucid Dream and 58.2% of Mystical Experiences. Significant differences were found between groups in terms of gender, income, marital status, religion and religiosity, and beliefs in general. It was also verified that the prevalence of anomalous experiences in the group of Mediums was superior in relation to the other groups, and that Mediums are those who most believe in anomalous experiences, reincarnation, life after death and in \"alternative practices\". The ARNM group reported the most changes in attitude as a result of the AEs. Mediums and members of the ARNM group reported that they changed their beliefs more because of AEs and the Medium group was the one most affected by the AEs in decision making. Such influence is significantly related to the attribution of causality made for the anomalous experiences experiencers. The attributions of causality are consistent with the belief, adherence or religious posture of the experiencers. There was a current prevalence of 36.7% of Anxiety Disorders in the sample, 17.1% of Depressive Disorder e 8.2% of Bipolar Disorder. The prevalence of some Anxiety Disorders was higher in the Atheist group and Depressive Disorders in the Consultants group. Schizotypy factors were negatively correlated with QOL and Cognitive Disorganization, Introved Anhedonia and Impulsive Nonconformity correlated with worse levels in all QOL domains. Generalized Anxiety Disorder was associated with poorer QOL in all domains. Anhedonia Introverted correlated positively and significantly with Current Depressive Disorder. There was a positive and significant correlation between Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Cognitive Disorganization and Impulsive Non Conformity. There was also a positive and significant correlation between Cognitive Disorganization and Depressive and Anxious Disorders (A) and with Any Disorder. The data were discussed in details, emphasizing the complexity of their associations and correlations. The results are not conclusive, but point to trends that have already been found in other studies and should be explored in more depth in future studies

Family functioning has long been a focus of research in psychopathology. Decades of research has shown that family factors are associated with symptom severity, relapse, functional outcomes, and conversion to psychosis among at-risk individuals. Previous studies suggest family functioning varies across cultures, which raises the possibility that associations between family factors and psychopathology may also differ by culture. Furthermore, family functioning assessment generally involves instruments that have not been systematically validated for use with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. The current study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study (N = 11,138) to: (1) evaluate three family functioning scales (i.e., Family Environment Scale, Child's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory, Parental Monitoring Survey) and the Prodromal Questionnaire – Brief Child version for measurement invariance across racial/ethnic groups; (2) investigate the relations between family factors and psychosis; and (3) compare relations derived from Step 2 between racial/ethnic groups. Full scalar invariance was tenable for the CRPBI and the PQ-BC, providing statistical support for mean comparisons across groups. The FES and the PMQ lacked scalar invariance, which suggests mean comparisons across groups may not be appropriate. The CRPBI and the PMQ are significantly associated with the PQ-BC, and all three family scales had equivalent relations with the PQ-BC across groups. The current study highlights the importance of evaluating assessment instruments for measurement invariance across racial/ethnic groups. Results also help to connect specific family factors to the etiology of psychotic disorders among US children and adolescents.

Les difficultés de théorie de l’esprit (ToM) associées à la schizophrénie (SZ) et la schizotypie (Szt) seraient dues à un trouble élémentaire de traitement du contexte. Or, traiter le contexte engagerait deux types de processus inégalement atteints dans la SZ: les processus prédictifs (génération de prédictions) seraient préservés et les processus intégratifs (intégration a posteriori des informations nouvelles avec le contexte) seraient altérés. Ces processus sont mobilisés lors de la production d’inférences et reflétés par la modulation de la N400 ou de la P600. À l’aide de mesures comportementales et électrophysiologiques, l’objectif de ce travail était de: a) vérifier l’inégale atteinte de ces processus dans la Szt, b) évaluer si ce pattern d’inégale atteinte est observé lors d’une tâche de production d’inférences intentionnelles (PII), c) faciliter la mobilisation des processus altérés par le renforcement du contexte (sémantique, ajout d’un indice social). L’étude réalisée avec un paradigme d’amorçage sémantique en contexte mot confirme l’altération spécifique des processus intégratifs dans la Szt. La suite des études, conduite autour d’une tâche de PII reposant sur les processus prédictifs ou intégratifs dans la SZ et la Szt, montre: 1) des difficultés de PII lorsqu’elle mobilise les processus intégratifs, 2) une réduction de ces difficultés par le renforcement sémantique et 3) que l’ajout d’un indice social pourrait faciliter le traitement du contexte. Ainsi, la PII n’est pas totalement altérée dans la Szt et la SZ. Les études futures devraient considérer cette inégale atteinte des processus en ToM pour aider les patients à attribuer des intentions à autrui. / Theory of mind (ToM) impairments in schizophrenia (SZ) and in schizotypy (Szt) may stem from a context-processing deficit. However, treating the context would involve two types of processes differently affected impacted in SZ: predictive strategy (generation of expectations) would be preserved and integrative strategy (retroactive integration of new information with the context) would be altered. These processes are mobilized during inference generation tasks and reflected by modulations of the N400 and P600 components. Using behavioral and electrophysiological measures, the aim of this thesis was to: (a) confirm the unequal alteration of these processes in the Szt, (b) assess whether this pattern of unequal alteration is observed in intentional inference production tasks (IIP), and (c) facilitate the mobilization of altered processes by increasing the contextual constraints (semantic constraint, contextual reinforcement by social cue). Using a semantic priming task in word context, a first study showed that integrative processes are specifically altered in Szt. Subsequent studies were based on IIP task in which the inference production involved predictive processes or integrative processes. Results showed that: (1) difficulties were observed only when IIP involved integrative processes, (2) semantic constraints decreased these difficulties and (3) context processing may be facilitated by the addition of a social cue. Thus, IIP is not totally altered in Szt and SZ. Future studies should consider this unequal impact of ToM processes to help patients attribute intentions to others.

Introducció. Actualment, està àmpliament acceptat que l'esquizofrènia posseeix una etiologia multifactorial i que existeix una complexa interacció entre factors genètics i factors ambientals. Amb l'objectiu de coneixerà quins són els mecanismes etiològics i patofisiològics que determinen el trastorn una part de la investigaci6 s 'ha centrat, en els últims anys, en la detecció de marcadors de vulnerabilitat en subjectes amb risc al trastorn. Aquesta vulnerabilitat, denominada 'esquizotipia', es pot identificar en subjectes clínicament no afectats. Objectiu. L'objectiu d'aquesta investigació s'ha dirigit a intentar contestar a alguns interrogants que encara no tenen resposta. Per exemple, per què alguns familiars, essent portadors del genotip esquizofrènic, no han presentat mai la malaltia?, existeixen formes esquizotípiques de menor risc per a la presentació del trastorn?, poden alguns patrons esquizotípics 'ajudar' a que la vulnerabilitat es mantingui latent i no es manifesti en forma de trastorn? En termes generals, l'estudi s'ha centrat en la identificació de marcadors de vulnerabilitat dels trastorns de l'espectre esquizofrènic en pares no afectats de pacients amb esquizofrènia (subjectes d'edats avançades amb poca probabilitat de presentar el trastorn) comparats amb pares normals de subjectes normals. Metodologia. S' han avaluat 26 parelles de pares no afectats de pacients amb esquizofrènia i 26 parelles de pares normals de subjectes normals (n= 104) en variables de personalitat i comportamentals (esquizotipia psicomètrica -O-LIFE-, trastorns de personalitat -Qüestionari d'avaluació IPDE-, psicopatologia general -SCL-90- i lloc de control -MHLC-) i variables neuropsicològiques (dèficit atencional -CPT-IP-, funció executiva -TMT part B- i memòria i aprenentatge verbal -CVLT-). Resultats. Els pares dels pacients esquizofrènics, comparats amb els controls, mostren significativament puntuacions mes altes al factor d'anhedònia introvertida, al trastorn paranoide de la personalitat i al trastorn per evitació de la personalitat, més característiques de psicopatologia general i un major lloc de control intern relacionat amb la salut. També realitzen mes errors d'omissió en la tasca atencional, presenten una major interferència proactiva al test de memòria i aprenentatge verbal i mostren una tendència a dedicar mes temps a completar la tasca executiva. Els resultats mostren que les associacions entre les variables de personalitat i les neuropsicològiques són de poca magnitud i les diferències entre ambdós grups no segueixen un patró clarament determinat. Conclusions. Els pares dels pacients esquizofrènics presenten més trets esquizotípics negatius que els pares del subjectes normals. L'anhedònia introvertida podria considerar-se com una forma de menor risc a l'esquizofrènia ja que s'evidencia en subjectes (pares) d'edats avançades que ja han superat l'edat de risc i amb poca probabilitat de presentar mai el trastorn. Tanmateix, es confirma que el trastorn paranoide de la personalitat forma part dels trastorns de l'espectre esquizofrènic. Els pares dels pacients atribueixen un major pes i la internalització i al poder dels altres en relació a l'estat de salut, i en general, presenten més característiques psicopatològiques que el grup control. Quant a les variables neuropsicològiques, els pares dels pacients realitzen pitjor la tasca atencional, són més lents en l'anticipació, planificació i flexibilitat de les respostes en el test executiu. Els indicadors de memòria i aprenentatge verbal no discriminen a ambdós grups, i únicament els pares dels pacients presenten una major interferència proactiva. Finalment, el patró de personalitat i el neuropsicològic corresponen a dos fenotips diferents relacionats amb l'esquizofrènia que no es troben íntimament units en subjectes amb aquestes característiques. / Introducción. En la actualidad, está plenamente aceptado que la esquizofrenia posee una etiología multifactorial y que existe una compleja interacción entre factores genéticos y factores ambientales. Con el objetivo de conocer cuales son los mecanismos etiológicos y pato fisiológicos que determinan el trastorno una parte de la investigación se ha centrado, en los últimos años, en la detección de marcadores de vulnerabilidad en sujetos con riesgo al trastorno. Esta vulnerabilidad, denominada 'esquizotipia', puede ser identificada en sujetos clínicamente no afectados. Objetivo. El objetivo de esta investigación se ha dirigido a intentar contestar algunos interrogantes que aun hoy en día no tienen respuestas. Por ejemplo, ¿por qué algunos familiares, aun siendo portadores del genotipo esquizofrénico, no han presentado nunca la enfermedad?, ¿existen formas esquizotipicas de menor riesgo para la presentación del trastorno?, ¿pueden algunos patrones esquizotípicos 'ayudar' a que la vulnerabilidad quede dormida y no se manifieste en forma de trastorno? En términos generales, este estudio se ha centrado en la identificación de marcadores de vulnerabilidad de los trastornos del espectro esquizofrénico en padres no afectados de pacientes con esquizofrenia (sujetos de edades avanzadas con poca probabilidad de presentar el trastorno) comparados con padres normales de sujetos normales. Metodología. Se han evaluado 26 parejas de padres no afectados de pacientes con esquizofrenia y 26 parejas de padres normales de sujetos normales (n=104) en variables de personalidad y comportamentales (esquizotipia psicométrica -O-LIFE-, trastornos de personalidad ¬Cuestionario de evaluación IPDE-, psicopatología general -SCL-90- y locus de control ¬MHLC-) y variables neuropsicológicas (déficit atencional -CPT-IP-, función ejecutiva -TMT parte B- y memoria y aprendizaje verbal -CVLT-). Resultados. Los padres de los pacientes esquizofrénicos, comparados con los controles, muestran significativamente puntuaciones más elevadas en el factor de anhedonia introvertida, en el trastorno paranoide y por evitación de la personalidad, mas características de psicopatología general y un mayor locus de control interno relacionado con la salud. También cometen más errores de omisión en la tarea atencional, presentan una mayor interferencia proactiva en la tarea de memoria y aprendizaje verbal y muestran una tendencia a tardar más en completar la tarea ejecutiva. Los resultados muestran que las asociaciones entre las variables de personalidad y las neuropsicológicas son de poca magnitud y las diferencias entre ambos grupos no siguen un patrón claramente determinado. Conclusiones. Los padres de los pacientes esquizofrénicos presentan más síntomas esquizotípicos negativos que los padres de normales. La anhedonia introvertida podría considerarse como una forma de menor riesgo a la esquizofrenia ya que se evidencia en sujetos (padres) de edades avanzadas que han superado la edad de riesgo y con muy poca probabilidad de presentar ya el trastorno. Asimismo se confirma que el trastorno paranoide forma parte de los trastornos del espectro esquizofrénico. Los padres de los pacientes atribuyen un mayor peso a la internalización y al poder de los otros en relación al estado de salud, y en general presentan más características psicopatológicas que el grupo control. En cuanto a las variables neuropsicológicas, se puede observar que los padres de los pacientes muestran una ejecución más pobre en la tarea atencional, son más lentos en la anticipación, planificación y flexibilidad de las respuestas en la tarea ejecutiva. Los indicadores de memoria y aprendizaje verbal no discriminan a ambos grupos y únicamente los padres de los pacientes muestran una mayor interferencia proactiva. Finalmente, los resultados muestran que el patrón de personalidad y el neuropsicológico son dos fenotipos diferentes relacionados con la esquizofrenia que no se encuentran íntimamente ligados en sujetos de estas características. / It has been widely accepted that schizophrenia has a multifactorial etiology and also that there is a complex interaction between genetic and ambiental factors. In the last years, many research efforts have been focused to detection of vulnerability markers in subjects at risk. This vulnerability is called 'schizotypy' and can be identified in subjects that are clinically non-affected. Objective. The present study was designed to find answers to questions that are still unresolved. For instance, why some schizophrenic parents who have the schizophrenic genotype have never presented the disease? Are there low risk schizotypic forms to the manifestation of the schizophrenia? Can some schizotypic patterns reduce the vulnerability to a latent status making the schizophrenic disorder not to be manifested? In concrete, the main objective has been the identification of vulnerability markers of the schizophrenic spectrum disorders in non-affected parents of schizophrenic patients compared with normal parents of normal subjects, this is, in subjects who are beyond the age of risk, therefore, they have low probability to manifest the disorder. Methodology. A total of 104 subjects (26 couples of non-affected parents of schizophrenic patients and 26 couples of normal parents of normal subjects matched for age and intellectual level) has been evaluated on behavioral and personality measures (psychometric schizotypy -O-LIFE-, personality disorders ¬IPDE-, general psychopathology -SCL-90- and locus of control -MHLC-) and on neuropsychological measures (attentional deficit -CPT-IP-, executive function TMT part B- and memory and verbal learning -CVLT -). Results. Parents of schizophrenic patients show significant higher scores in introvertive anhedonia factor, paranoid and avoidant personality disorder, general psychopathological characteristics and higher internal locus of control related to health, when compared with the parents of the control group. Moreover, parents of schizophrenic patients make more omission errors in the attentional task, show a higher proactive interference in the memory and verbal learning test and have a tendency to spend more time in the executive task. Results show that links between personality and neuropsychological characteristics are not relevant and the differences found between both sample groups do not show a clear trend. Conclusions. Parents of schizophrenic subjects present more negative schizotypic traits than normal parents. Introvertive anhedonia can be considered as a lower risk factor to the schizophrenia manifestation, because it is present in subjects who have low probability to manifest the disorder. The present study confirms that the paranoid disorder can be classified as one of the schizophrenic spectrum disorders. Patients' parents give more importance to internalism locus of control and to power of the others related to health. In general, they present more psychopathological characteristics than the control group. For the neuropsychological variables, it can be observed that parents of schizophrenic patients performed more poorly attentional task, they are slower in the anticipation, planification and flexibility giving the answers to an executive task. Verbal memory and learning markers do not differ between groups. Parents of schizophrenic patients show a higher proactive interference. Results show that the personality and the neuropsychological patterns are two different phenotypes related with the schizophrenia, which have not an important connection in subjects with those characteristics.