The aim with this thesis is to investigate whether increased capital flows to ESG screened indexes create higher price-to-earnings (P/E) ratios and momentum in the included stocks during the chosen time period of three years, from 2018 to 2020. The thesis will evaluate the capital flows to ESG indexes and compare both performance and P/E ratios between those and their corresponding Mother indexes. The study will also look at the development of capital flows, performance and P/E ratios separately in the four chosen geographical indexes; Global, Europe, US and Emerging Markets. The theoretical framework goes through four relevant subjects for this study; passive investing, ESG, momentum and the P/E ratio. The study has shown that the capital flows in all four ESG indexes increased during the chosen time period. Moreover, it could be proven that three out of four ESG indexes outperformed their Mother indexes, namely, Global, Europe and Emerging Markets. In the U.S. the Mother index outperformed the ESG index. Three out of four geographical indexes also had a higher increase in the average P/E ratio than their mother indexes. Here, the Global market stood out as the one that had a lower increase in P/E ratio than its Mother index. Lastly, regression analyses were made to see the relationship between the variables capital flows, average P/E ratios in the indexes and the performance of the indexes. The study showed significantly that capital flows is the explanatory variable for the increased P/E ratios on the European ESG index. However, for the other indexes no significant correlation could be proved. This led to an interesting discussion and conclusion, and also left us with a question mark. What is the reason behind this result on the European market, and why was it not possible to see any significant correlation on the other markets? Further research in this field is needed and some ideas are discussed in the last chapter of the thesis.

Responsible investing is a growing concept as sustainability is becoming a much more apparent problem. Thus, the EU implemented a new regulation in 2021, the SFDR 2019/2088, to decrease information asymmetry between institutional investors and end investors regarding sustainable risks associated with funds’ investments. This thesis aims to study whether Swedish mutual funds are greenwashing in terms of funds that are classified as Article 9 funds and invest in firms with low ESG scores. I find that greenwashing occurs among some Swedish mutual funds classified as Article 9 funds, urging further actions to be taken by scholars, practitioners, and regulators given the complexity of the studied research field.

[pt] Títulos verdes são instrumentos para financiamento de ativos e projetos com benefícios ambientais, cuja emissão vem se tornando comum no mercado brasileiro. Preferências não-pecuniárias de investidores pela compra desses títulos associados a impacto ambiental positivo podem se refletir em uma diferença em sua precificação em comparação com títulos convencionais, fenômeno denominado de prêmio verde (greenium). A bibliografia internacional que explora a existência de um prêmio verde e de seus determinantes ainda é variada, porém não contempla o mercado brasileiro. Este trabalho busca contribuir para a literatura ao explorar a dinâmica de precificação de títulos verdes no Brasil. Para possibilitar a comparação entre títulos verdes e títulos convencionais de características similares e isolar os efeitos do rótulo verde na precificação desses ativos, foram empregados dois métodos de pareamento, Propensity Score Matching e Coarsened Exact Matching. Considerando uma amostra de 110 títulos verdes e 227 títulos convencionais emitidos entre 2016 e 2022 pelos mesmos emissores, o resultado indica a existência de um prêmio verde de 1,92% no mercado brasileiro, porém com resultados mistos uma vez que apenas um dos métodos obteve resultado significativo. / [en] Green bonds are an important tool for financing assets and projects with positive environmental impacts and its issuance is becoming more commonplace in the Brazilian market. Non-pecuniary preferences by investors for these bonds may be reflected in a difference in its pricing when compared to conventional bonds in what has become known as greenium. The international literature exploring the existence of a greenium and its determinants has achieved mixed results, but it does not consider the Brazilian market. This dissertation aims to contribute to the literature by exploring the pricing dynamics of green bonds in Brazil. To enable the comparison between green and conventional bonds of similar characteristics and to isolate the effects of the green label in their pricing, two matching methods were employed, Propensity Score Matching and Coarsened Exact Matching. With a sample of 110 green bonds and 227 conventional bonds issued between 2016 and 2022 by the same issuers, the result indicates the existence of a greenium of 1.92% in the Brazilian market, but with mixed results since only one of the methods is significant.

In response to The Paris Agreement, all aspects of society are committing to transit to a low-carbon future. The real estate industry, which is responsible for a large portion of greenhouse gas emissions, plays a pivotal role in achieving this temperature goal. In the area of sustainable finance, green bonds are considered one of the most prominent financial innovations to channel funds into green projects. The green bonds market is also expanding with rapid growth. In this thesis, we investigate whether green bonds can be served as lower-cost financial instruments for real estate companies to raise capital for environmental or climate-friendly projects. We used propensity score matching to evaluate the green label effect on green bonds issued by real estate companies in the primary market at the international level. We find that green bonds issued by real estate companies have on average lower yields of around 10 basis points. The finding indicates that when issuing green bonds, real estate companies can benefit from a lower cost compared to issuing conventional bonds. We also perform analysis on subsamples divided by real estate company types. The empirical results show that the real estate investment trust can issue green bonds at a lower cost of about 11 basis points. Our findings suggest that green bonds can be used as a lower-cost financial instrument for companies in the real estate sector for decarbonizing actions. / För att leva upp till Parisavtalet förbinder sig alla sektorer i samhället att ställa om till en koldioxidsnål framtid. Fastighetsbranschen, som står för en stor del av växthusgaserna, spelar en avgörande roll för att uppnå klimatmålen. När det gäller hållbar finansiering anses gröna obligationer vara en av de mest framträdande finansiella innovationerna för att kanalisera medel till hållbara projekt. Den gröna obligationsmarknaden expanderar också i snabb takt. I denna avhandling undersöker vi om gröna obligationer kan fungera som billigare finansiella instrument för fastighetsbolag när de behöver skaffa kapital till miljö- eller klimatvänliga projekt. Vi använder metoden Propensity Score Matching för att utvärdera om det finns en premie när fastighetsbolag på internationell nivå emittera gröna obligationer på primärmarknaden. Vi finner att gröna obligationer utgivna av fastighetsbolag i genomsnitt har lägre avkastning med cirka 10 räntepunkter. Resultatet indikerar att fastighetsbolag vid emission av gröna obligationer kan dra nytta av en lägre kostnad jämfört med att emittera traditionella obligationer. Vi utför också analyser på undergrupper fördelade utifrån fastighetsbolagstyper. De empiriska resultaten visar att fastighetsinvesteringsfonder kan emittera gröna obligationer till en lägre kostnad på cirka 11 räntepunkter. Våra resultat tyder på att gröna obligationer kan användas som ett billigare finansiellt instrument för företag inom fastighetssektorn för att minska koldioxidutsläppen.

Bakgrund: Med anledning av den globala uppvärmningen behövs en omställning till en cirkulär ekonomi. Svenska fastigheter står för en stor del av samhällets energianvändning men har också genomgått en betydande energieffektivisering de senaste decennierna. Syfte: Studiens huvudsyfte var att svara på frågeställningen om det fanns ett samband mellan koldioxidprestanda och finansiell lönsamhet inom urvalsgruppen svenska fastighetsverksamheter mellan åren 2016 och 2020. Syftet var också att undersöka om koldioxidskatten hade ett samband med koldioxidprestanda. Metod: Data på koldioxidprestanda inhämtades manuellt från företagens hållbarhetsrapporter. Koldioxidprestanda uttrycktes som koldioxidintensitet. Finansiell lönsamhet uttrycktes genom fem olika nyckeltal: avkastning på eget kapital, avkastning på totalt kapital, EBITAD-marginal, rörelsemarginal och vinstmarginal. Sambanden analyserades med olika linjära regressionsmodeller för paneldata.Resultat: Resultaten visade på en signifikant negativ association mellan högre lönsamhet och lägre koldioxidintensitet. Resultaten var starkast för lönsamhetsmåtten avkastning på eget kapital, avkastning på totalt kapital, rörelsemarginal och vinstmarginal (p<0,05). Det fanns också ett signifikant samband mellan högre koldioxidskatt och lägre koldioxidintensitet. Slutsats: Det finns ett samband mellan högre lönsamhet och bättre koldioxidprestanda inom svenska fastighetsbranschen. Slutsatsen är också att lönsammare företag hade en lägre koldioxidintensitet. Slutligen så har en högre koldioxidskatt ett samband med bättre koldioxidprestanda. / Background: Due to global warming, a shift to a circular economy is needed. Swedish properties account for a large part of society's energy use, but have also undergone significant energy efficiency improvements in recent decades. Aim: The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between carbon performance and financial profitability within the sample group Swedish real estate companies between the years 2016 and 2020. The purpose was also to investigate a possible relationship between carbon tax and carbon performance. Method: Data on carbon performance were obtained manually from companies' environmental disclosure. Carbon performance was expressed as carbon intensity. Financial profitability was expressed through five different key ratios: return on equity, return on assets, EBITAD margin, operating margin, and profit margin. The relationships were analyzed with different linear regression models for panel data.Results: The results showed a significant negative association between higher profitability and lower carbon intensity. The results were strongest for the profitability measures return on equity, return on assets, operating margin and profit margin (p<0.05). There was also a significant association between higher carbon taxes and lower carbon intensity. Conclusion: There is a relationship between higher profitability and better carbon performance in the Swedish real estate industry. Furthermore, companies with higher profitability have lower carbon intensity. Finally, a higher carbon tax is associated with better carbon performance.

The green bond market has grown rapidly in the past years but still only stands for 1 percent of the total bond market. More issuers need to issue green bonds for the green bond market to grow, and investors need to invest in new issuers. A weakness of the green bond market is that there is no universal definition of sustainability. This thesis investigates the green bond market from investors’ perspectives, focusing on the role of trust in the green bond market. The thesis is qualitative research containing eight interviews with people on pension funds, asset management firms, an insurance company, and a fixed-income institute. The interviews were supplemented with a short questionary. The main findings are that trust has a vital role in the green bond market. Trust between investors and issuers can be strengthened through increased transparency from the issuer. Issuers’ general sustainability work is essential for investors when investing in green bonds. The research identified that the green bond market growth would benefit if a third-party actor would vouch for the company’s sustainability work. A recommendation to facilitate market growth is to establish a voluntary standardized sustainability rating with clear financial incentives for the issuer. It would enhance issuers’ sustainability awareness and increase transparency for the investors as the rating would be on the issuers’ initiative. / Den gröna obligationsmarknaden har vuxit kraftigt de senaste åren men står endast för 1 procent av den totala obligationsmarknaden. För att marknaden ska växa behöver fler emittenter utfärda gröna obligationer samtidigt som investerare behöver investera i nya emittenter. En svaghet för den gröna obligationsmarknaden är att det saknas en universell definition av hållbarhet. Detta arbete undersöker den gröna obligationsmarknaden från en investerares perspektiv med fokus på tillitens betydelse på marknaden. Arbetet är en kvalitativ studie som baseras på åtta intervjuer med personer inom pensionsbolag, kapitalförvaltning, försäkringsbolag och ett ränteinstitut. Intervjuerna kompletterades med en kort enkät. De viktigaste resultaten visar på att tillit har en betydande roll på den gröna obligationsmarknaden. Tillit mellan investerare och emittenter kan stärkas genom ökad transparens från emittentens sida. Resultat visar även på att emittentens generella hållbarhetsarbete är viktigt för investerare när de investerar i en grön obligation. Det identifieras att den gröna obligationsmarknaden skulle kunna dra fördel av om det existerar en tredjepartsaktör som kan bekräfta en emittents hållbarhetsarbete. Ett förslag som eventuellt skulle kunna leda till marknadstillväxt är att införa ett standardiserat hållbarhetsbetyg kopplat till tydliga finansiella incitament för både emittenten och investeraren. Detta skulle öka transparensen för investerare samt kunna förbättra emittentens medvetenhet gällande hållbarhet eftersom bedömningen skulle göras på emittentens initiativ.

The EU Taxonomy is a new regulation produced to set a European standard for sustainable investments and to allocate capital for a sustainable transition. The Taxonomy aims to regulate several sectors, one of which is the real estate sector. Due to it functioning as a classification system, the EU Taxonomy will play an essential role for companies seeking financing. This thesis explores how Swedish and Baltic real estate companies intend to work with sustainable finance given this new regulation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with companies within the real estate sector and government agencies from Sweden and the Baltic countries, in order to get a holistic view of the situation in these regions. Through research it has been found that the EU Taxonomy will continue to encourage the work with sustainability for companies even though there are some uncertainties with the regulation as of now. Current financial instruments, such as green bonds, are likely to continue to be emitted but will probably be connected with the EU Taxonomy. New financial products will be developed with the help of the Taxonomy. There are however differences in attitudes and actions regarding sustainable financing in Sweden and the Baltics. Sweden has come further with green financing, but the interest is high in the Baltics and sustainable financing is likely to evolve in the region in the near future. The research finds that there is a concern that smaller companies will have difficulties to keep up the pace of sustainability given the Taxonomy, especially if they recently have begun their work with sustainability. Even though the EU Taxonomy has received criticism for not including green building certifications, the general attitude is positive in that the Taxonomy will imply a common and cross-border definition of the term “sustainability”. / EU-taxonomin är ett nytt regelverk framtaget för att sätta en europeisk standard för hållbara investeringar och allokera kapital för en grön omställning. Taxonomin syftar till att reglera flera sektorer, varav fastighetssektorn är en av dem. Genom att fungera som ett klassificeringssystem så kommer EU-taxonomin att spela en central roll när företag ska finansiera sig. I denna uppsats undersöks hur svenska och baltiska fastighetsbolag kommer att arbeta med hållbar finansiering givet detta nya regelverk. Uppsatsen innehåller semistrukturerade intervjuer med fastighetsbolag och myndighetspersoner från Sverige och Baltikum för att få en överskådlig bild av situationen i nämnda regioner. Studien finner att EU-taxonomin kommer driva på hållbarhetsarbetet hos företag även om det initialt råder vissa oklarheter med regelverket. Befintliga finansiella instrument såsom gröna obligationer lär fortsätta emitteras men kommer troligtvis kopplas samman med EU-taxonomin. Nya finansiella produkter kommer att utvecklas med hjälp av taxonomin. Det finns emellertid skillnader när det kommer till hållbar finansiering mellan Sverige och Baltikum. Sverige har kommit längre vad gäller grön finansiering men intresset är högt i Baltikum och gröna finansieringslösningar lär växa i regionen inom en snar framtid. Undersökningen finner att det finns en oro för att företag av mindre storlek kommer att ha svårigheter att följa med på hållbarhetsresan i linje med taxonomin, särskilt om de nyligen påbörjat sitt hållbarhetsarbete. Trots att taxonomin har fått kritik för att inte inkludera miljöcertifieringar så är den sammantagna attityden positiv eftersom att EU-taxonomin kommer innebära en gemensam och gränsöverskridande definition av begreppet “hållbarhet”.

There is a growing awareness of, and commitment to, Responsible Investment (RI) in the institutional investment markets internationally. RI is defined as the consideration of environmental, social and/or governance (ESG) issues in long-term oriented investment decision-making. As the role of ESG in determining investment risk and opportunity becomes more evident, and as ESG data becomes more available, RI is increasingly seen as an area of potential investment innovation. This thesis applies institutional, evolutionary and relational economic geography theories to examine this trend, exploring the mainstreaming of RI through novel empirical and conceptual research. This thesis examines the investment learning processes and information channels available in Western liberal market economies of the UK, US and Australia. It adopts economic geography knowledge and innovation frames towards answering the question: 'Now that ESG information is more widely available in the investment markets, why has this not catalysed a greater shift towards RI integration in mainstream investment decisions?'. Learning, language and leadership factors within the institutional investment industry are all argued to help answer this question. This research uses a mixed method approach, with analysis based on a survey of 154 investment professions, 97 semi-structured interviews and a case of RI innovation. This thesis develops a conceptual framework of the communication channels and information sources used in investors' innovation-decision-process, drawing attention to the importance of both social and asocial learning processes in generating and sharing knowledge about climate issues within investment markets. Following this, the thesis examines the role of 'local buzz' and 'global pipelines' in facilitating access to, and uptake of, ESG information. Levels of buzz and pipelines are found to vary in different financial centres, and are facilitated by formal and informal networking linked to RI groups. Importantly, then, this thesis finds that both spatial and relational proximity influence investors' access to ESG information and RI knowledge. The second half of this thesis examines whether and how RI information, knowledge and practice can be integrated into existing individual and organisational decision-making frameworks. It highlights the need to better translate RI information into investment-relevant language, and provides an example of how environmentally-driven stranded assets can be reframed as a version of sunk costs, contributing novel spatial-temporal theorisations of this concept. Through an illustration of RI decision-making by the investment consultant Mercer and the University of Sydney endowment fund, this thesis highlights that the capacity to integrate RI through the investment chain does exist. However, willingness to do so is found to be hindered by institutional and organisational path dependent norms, reduced only in some firms by seeing RI as an innovative area of competitive advantage from growing client demand. This thesis therefore finds that RI is being adopted in increasingly more mainstream investment firms, but this is not always fully integrated throughout the firm, and that uptake is geographically varied based on exposure to networks of information and knowledge sharing, and institutional, organisational and individual norms. Ultimately, this thesis therefore contributes towards understandings of the processes underpinning the mainstreaming of RI, but also contributes to broader economic geographies of investment, knowledge sharing and innovation.

The ocean economy is growing unprecedentedly, and container shipping is one of the key sectors at the heart of this growth. Shipping companies are among the largest ocean-based companies, and while they are committed to reducing their emissions, the sector remains plagued with many sustainability challenges. This thesis employs a mixed-methods approach to delve into the financial landscape of container shipping and examine the “E” of Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) that defines the sector's sustainability dimensions. It starts by highlighting the potential of financiers to incentivise companies toward ocean sustainability, and then through interviews with bank personnel provides insight into their motivations, challenges, risk perceptions, and sustainable lending processes. The results attempt to align actors' motivations along stewardship principles of care, knowledge, and agency. However, the findings reveal that reputational pressures serve as primary drivers of action. Unexpectedly, investor pressure on banks emerges as a promising leverage point. The discussion section of the thesis offers insights on the path to achieving sustainable shipping. It highlights the importance of co-creating solutions across the entire value chain as the banking sector's involvement in container shipping continues to grow.

This study will examine a strategy for evaluating energy storage projects by integrating valuation metrics from finance and the energy sector. Uncertainty is one of the key barriers to investment in the energy sector (Shimbar & Ebrahimi, 2017, p. 349) and therefore financial modeling that allows comprehensive valuation of energy investment is necessary (Berrada, 2022, p. 407). The purpose of the study is to propose a strategy for evaluating energy storage projects that applies to investors and decision makers.  LCOS is a necessary component of energy storage project valuation, as it considers both the financial and technical performance of energy storage systems (ESS). Existing research in the field has contradictory opinions regarding the usefulness of LCOS and traditional financial valuation models for investment decisions in the energy storage sector. Few studies have combined modeling from the financial and energy sector. The authors have identified a need to introduce an investor perspective to business research in the energy storage sector. The authors conduct an explorative mixed-method study with an underlying non-positivist philosophical position. The case study design includes creation of five hypothetical energy storage projects to simulate an investment scenario. The authors utilize a point-base system to integrate valuation models from the energy and financial sectors, which include NPV, IRR, payback period, LCOS and technological maturity. Experts in the field provide input for which metrics are emphasized by practitioners. The projects are ranked based on stand-alone metrics, an integrated model and expert opinion. The results indicate that integrating numerous valuation metrics is necessary for analyzing and comparing energy storage investments. The financial viability of projects change based on individual metrics and integrated financial models. Furthermore, the results indicate that LCOS should be reinforced by financial indicators when making investment decisions. The expert input shows that investors emphasize valuation metrics differently, which indicates that the economic attractiveness of energy storage projects varies among investors. IRR is used by practitioners as a primary indicator for profitability. Future research should investigate a method for including sustainability indicators in the valuation process. Furthermore, as data accessibility is an issue in the field of study, future studies should collaborate with practitioners to generate more secondary data sources. Lastly, the impact of discount rates, risk premiums and investor preferences should be researched to better understand investment in the sector.