The past decade has seen a rise in research on social, relational and indirect aggression, with a burgeoning focus only recently on the psychosocial consequences of being a target of such behaviours. It is widely understood that experiencing social aggression can trigger internal distress for children and adolescents, but far less is known about the nature and extent of longer-term psychosocial consequences. In this qualitative study, I aim to begin filling this gap by exploring how young women make meaning from experiences of social aggression in adolescence, with a particular focus on how they understand the impact of these experiences on their sense of self and relation to others in adulthood. Seven women between the ages of 25 and 32 were interviewed using a modified collaborative narrative method (Arvay, 2003). Interviews were transcribed and interpreted in narrative form to preserve the unique voice and experience of each participant. Five themes emerged through a process of categorical-content analysis as described by Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach & Zilber (1998). Themes address participants' meaning-making following experiences of social aggression in terms of the (1) struggle to understand, (2) loss of trust in relationship, (3) changes in sense of self, (4) psychosocial responses, and (5) process of reframing of the experience in adulthood. The themes are discussed within the context of relevant qualitative and quantitative literature on the psychosocial consequence of social, relational and indirect aggression in adolescence and adulthood. Implications for school and community counselling practice and suggestions for future research are examined. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

This study examined the knowledge relevant to reducing crime affecting urban Aboriginal people through a risk-focused approach to prevention and a growing body of knowledge about how it gets implemented. It then examined this knowledge in a case study of its application in Winnipeg. Interviews were undertaken using a structured questionnaire with program stakeholders and policy planners involved in crime prevention initiatives, programming and policy in Winnipeg. Approximately half of the stakeholders were involved primarily with Aboriginal people and the other half were involved with programs that included both Aboriginal people and non-Aboriginal people. The interviews took place from September to November 2009. The interviews show that many stakeholders agree with the risk-focused prevention literature on risk factors and that there are prevention programs operating in Winnipeg serving at-risk Aboriginal people. Therefore, there exists the possibility of reducing crime given that they are tackling risk factors in a way which is consistent with crime prevention research. However, when the interviews turned to issues of implementation, it showed: • There is no responsibility centre to mobilize different sectors to tackle crime • Many programs are not implemented comprehensively • There is a lack of localized coordinated action (including support from the police chief and public engagement) • There is a lack of political leadership • There is no city-wide strategic plan, and • Programs are in constant competition for funding in order to continue operations. If we are to reduce the disproportionate rates of victimization and offending affecting urban Aboriginal peoples, we need to find more effective ways to implement the strategies that are proven to tackle risk factors. There must be support from the mayor and police chief, training and capacity development, and public engagement which fosters strong use of proven strategies. A responsibility centre with Aboriginal representation must be created. Funding must be expanded to support the community based organizations that are tackling established risk factors. Finally, sustained and adequate funding must be provided to these programs and the responsibility centre.

Position of Victims within the Judiciary System of the Czech Republic By Eva Kaplova My Diploma Thesis pursues position of victims within the judicial system of the Czech Republic; especially from the point of view of statutes which the victims may wish to rely upon when seeking legal assistance. In this work, I describe and distinguish understanding of two basic concepts; the concept of an "aggrieved party" (an injured party) and, the concept of a "victim". I also take into consideration the rights to compensation already vested in the current Czech jurisdiction. I review and assess the laws currently in force, especially from the point of view of adequate protection of a victim; as compared to final amendments to the Czech Body of Law, to be enacted by 2013. I bring up numerous issues concerning primary and secondary victimisation. Furthermore, I compare some problematic issues concerning the victim from an international perspective, especially then within several states of the European Union. Finally, my Thesis brings up several suggestions of improving as well as increasing the threshold of victims' protection within the framework of the Judiciary of the Czech Republic.

This study investigated the nature and impact of the sexual abuse of children ages birth through 6 years. The purpose was to enhance knowledge about this understudied population through examination of: (1) characteristics of the abuse; (2) socioemotional developmental outcomes of young victims; and (3) potential moderating effects of family dynamics. An ecological-developmental theoretical framework was applied. Secondary data analysis was conducted using data collected from the consortium Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). A sample of 250 children was drawn from LONGSCAN data, including children who were sexually abused (n=125) and their nonabused counterparts (n=125), matched on demographic variables. Results revealed that young victims of sexual abuse were disproportionately female (91 girls; 73%). The sexual abuse committed against these youngsters was severe in nature, with 111 children (89%) experiencing contact offenses ranging from fondling to forcible rape. Sixty-two percent of child victims demonstrated borderline, clinical, or less than adequate functioning on normative, expected socioemotional outcomes. Child victims reported low degrees of perceived competence and satisfaction in the social environment. When compared with their nonabused counterparts, child victims demonstrated significantly poorer socioemotional functioning, as evidenced by aggressive behaviors, attention and thought problems. Sexually abused youngsters also reported lower self-perceptions of cognitive and physical competence and maternal acceptance. Family dynamic factors did not significantly moderate the relationships between abuse and socioemotional outcomes, with one exception. The caregivers’ degree of empathy for their children had a significant moderating effect on the children’s social problems. This study contributes to an otherwise scant body of literature on the sexual abuse of preschoolers. Findings provide implications for social work practice, especially in the development of assessment and prevention strategies.

This paper presents the results of a study about peer intimidation and victimization with 1167 school students from 6th, 7th, and 8th grade from the Valparaiso Region of Valparaíso, Chile. The instrument used was the Insebull Battery (Avilés & Elices, 2007). Results show that approximately 9% of students have been victim of peer victimization many times or almost every day during the school year. Psychological victimization was more frequent thanphysical aggression, particularly through virtual communication such as cell-phone messages and e-mails. Participants tend to be groups of male students. Although male students participate more in physical aggression, they also receive more physical and psychological aggression. The most frequent places were inside the classroom and the school yard, when the teacher is not present. Most students inform not knowing, or vaguely knowing, thereasons underlying these aggressions, and do not do anything to deal with them. These results coincide with international studies and allow a better understanding of the characteristics of peer victimization in specific educational contexts within the Chilean school system. / Se presenta un estudio de conductas de intimidación y victmización en 1167 escolares de 6º, 7º y 8º año Básico de la Región de Valparaíso, Chile. Se utilizó la batería Insebull (Avilés &Elices, 2007). Los resultados indican que 9% ha sido víctima del maltrato de sus compañeros bastantes veces o casi todos los días durante el año escolar. El maltrato psicológico es más frecuente que la agresión física, destacándose el uso de medios virtuales. Los participantes suelen ser varones que actúan en grupo. Los lugares más frecuentes son la sala de clases y el patio de recreo, en ausencia del profesor. La mayoría señala no saber, o solo difusamente, las razones que subyacen a estos actos, y no hacer nada frente a actos observados. Estos resultados coinciden con los estudios a nivel internacional, y permiten comprender el maltrato entre pares en contextos específicos de la realidad educativa chilena.

Cyber victimization is a new phenomenon that keeps increasing with every year, and although the interest in research has grown, little is still known about ways to minimize the outcomes of cyber victimization on mental health. This thesis aimed to investigate whether psychological flexibility could act as a moderator on the relationship between cyber victimization and trait anxiety in Swedish youth. Gender was used as a control variable. Participants were recruited on Facebook, and data was collected via an online questionnaire that contained gender, age, Adolescent Cyber-Victimization Scale, Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth, and Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children. The sample consisted of 102 Swedish youths (females, N = 74, males, N = 28) aged 16 to 25 years (M = 20.34, SD = 2.88). A multiple linear regression showed that psychological flexibility and cyber victimization significantly predicted anxiety. The results for psychological flexibility as a moderator on the relationship between cyber victimization and anxiety, and for gender as a predictor for anxiety, were non-significant. The results provide a deeper understanding of the role of psychological flexibility in mental health in youth, but further research is needed on psychological flexibility as a moderator. Future research should focus on more clinical groups with increased sample size and add a wider gender perspective. / Att bli utsatt för nätmobbning är ett nytt fenomen som fortsätter att öka för varje år, och trots att intresset för forskning har växt, så vet man fortfarande lite om sätt att minska utfallet av nätmobbning på mental hälsa. Den här studien syftade till att undersöka huruvida psykologisk flexibilitet kan agera som en moderator på relationen mellan nätmobbning och ångest hos svenska ungdomar. Kön användes som kontrollvariabel. Deltagarna rekryterades på Facebook och data samlades in via ett onlineformulär som innehöll kön, ålder, Adolescent Cyber-Victimization Scale, Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth, och Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children. Antalet deltagare var 102 svenska ungdomar (kvinnor, N = 74, män, N = 28) i åldern 16 till 25 år (M = 20,34, SD = 2,88). En multipel linjär regression visade att psykologisk flexibilitet och nätmobbning signifikant predicerade ångest. Resultaten för psykologisk flexibilitet som en moderator på relationen mellan nätmobbning och ångest, och för kön som prediktor av ångest, var icke-signifikanta. Resultaten bidrar med en ökad förståelse för vilken roll psykologisk flexibilitet har i mental hälsa hos unga, men fortsatt forskning behövs på psykologisk flexibilitet som en moderator. Framtida forskning borde fokusera på mer kliniska grupper med ökad urvalsstorlek och lägga till ett bredare genusperspektiv.

The purpose of the current study was to determine if there are potential mediating factors to a student being victimized by school violence. Results from 5,409 middle school and high school student participants who completed the 2007 School Crime Supplement of the National Crime Victimization Survey, a nationally collected survey on victimization, were used to determine if there was a relationship between student victimization and extracurricular activity involvement. Specifically, the questions about victimization (bullying), extracurricular activity involvement, a relationship with an adult at school, and a relationship with a friend were used. Seven specific types of extracurricular activities (athletic teams, spirit groups, performing arts groups, academic clubs, student government, community service/volunteer clubs, and other) were examined to determine if a specific type of extracurricular activity might be related to lower victimization scores. Relationships with an adult and a peer were examined in association with a student's involvement in extracurricular activities. Reported victimization status was also explored in connection with the student's relationships with an adult and peer. The results of this study indicate statistically significant relations among many of the variables above. However, the large sample size was the reason for the significant findings. The results indicate that protecting a student from victimization may not be a benefit of extracurricular involvement; however, extracurricular activities may be a useful tool to connect students to friends and caring adults at school.

Internet technology has paved new diversion in crime and victimization. There is voluminous data related to cyber victimization of adolescents and college students, however there is dearth of research related to cyber victimization of adult women. The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the prevalence of cyber victimization of adult women other than by intimate partner or ex-partner and to find out their risk factors as well as consequences. Articles were searched between January, 2010 to April, 2020 from ProQuest, PsycInfo, CINAHL, Web of Science, JSTOR, ASSIA and PubMed databases. A total of 2988 studies were extracted, after initial screening, 275 were left for full text review. A total of 14 studies were finally reviewed and qualitatively assessed according to Standard quality assessment criteria for evaluating primary research papers (Kmet et al., 2004). Three were discarded for not meeting the desired quality rating of > .75. Review comprised of multiethnic and multinational sample of 6019 participants, aged between 17 to 68yrs. Results revealed that women are cyber victimized more as compared to males especially sexual victimization is more prevalent among women than men. The important risk factors identified are age, sexual orientation, lack of social support, low self-esteem, control imbalance, opportunity and risky behaviors. Due to cyber victimization emotional distress, pathological ruminations and depression are reported as consequence.

Past research has confirmed that structural attributes of nations, as well as individual characteristics of people contribute to levels of fear of crime, across both nations and individuals. Specifically, in regard to the effects structural characteristics have on fear, gender equality has been shown to affect rates of rape, which in turn, affect women's fear of crime. Regarding individual-level determinants, age, income, education, whether one dwells in an urban or rural area, and prior victimization have been shown to have effects on fear. This dissertation set out to answer several research questions related to prior findings: 1) How does gender equality affect women's fear of crime across nations?; 2) Does gender equality have a direct effect on women's fear, or is this effect mediated by national rape rates?; 3) How do structural characteristics other than gender equality affect women's fear of crime?; and last, 4) How do individual characteristics affect women's fear of crime? Using data from various sources, including the International Criminal Victimization Survey, the World Values Survey, the United Nations, and the World Bank (total N=20 nations and 17,384 individuals), I assessed the aforementioned research questions using multilevel modeling. Overall, findings indicate that individual-level characteristics did a better job than structural context in predicting women's fear of crime across various nations. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed in the final chapter.

Background: Children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities are at increased risk for peer victimization in schools. Due to the deficits in their social, cognitive, and adaptive skills, these children face greater challenges to stand up for themselves thus, facing continued victimization.   Aim: This systematic literature review sought to critically identify the existing literature on predictors and outcomes which are associated with peer victimization in children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities in a school environment using the Biopsychosocial model. Method: To conduct this study, a systematic search procedure was formulated to retrieve relevant scholarly articles from the chosen databases. Peer reviewed journals were searched to retrieve articles from education, psychology, and social sciences, published in English language between years 2000-2020. Only studies with children and adolescents ages 6 - 21 years were considered. A total of eight articles with five cross-sectional, two cohort, and one case-control studies qualified to answer the research questions. Results: Findings varied across the social and psychological aspects. Social predictors and outcomes were found to be dominant for peer victimization. Internalizing Behaviour Disorders as a whole was identified as a psychological predictor with low self-esteem and depressive feelings as individual predictors and outcomes of peer victimization. Conclusion: Children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities are vulnerable to peer victimization due to deficits in disability characteristics. Exposure to peer victimization can pose serious consequences on their social and psychological well-being. Implications for future research and methodological limitations of this study are also discussed.