Secondary Victimization of Victims by Criminal Proceedings Abstract The submitted diploma thesis deals with the issue of secondary victimization in the context of criminal proceedings. The main goal of this work is to evaluate whether effective legislation provides victims with protection against secondary harm. Based on the theoretical basis of the issue of secondary victimization, the thesis also focuses on finding out whether the legislation adequately reflects the current victimological and psychological knowledge in the field of secondary victimization and secondary harm. The work is divided into three chapters. The first part deals with the basic conceptual issues of secondary victimization in a broader context. Emphasis is placed on the transformation of the victim's position in criminal proceedings within the historical development of victimology as an independent field. The terminological and interpretive shortcomings of the concept of victimization are also emphasized. The second chapter discusses secondary victimization as a victimological phenomenon. In addition to defining the concept of secondary victimization, attention is paid to the causes of secondary victimization, its sources and types of actions leading to secondary harm. The main part of the work is the third chapter, which deals with...

The theories of social bond, differential association and routine activities were synthesized into one theoretical model to determine its predictive utility in the explanation of juvenile delinquency and victimization. Using cross-sectional data obtained from the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) survey, a sample of 1,555 middle school students was examined. The results of the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regressions indicate that the integrated model explains between 33% and 37% of the variation in delinquent behavior (i.e., property crime, violent crime and alcohol and illegal drug use). The analysis also indicates that the integrated model explains between 15% and 27% of the variation in victimization. This thesis concludes that theoretical integration is necessary in order to develop a more complete crime theory and to increase the current understanding of the crime-victimization relationship.

The purpose of this study was to analyze juveniles' attitudes toward the police and how their attitudes were affected by prior victimization and delinquency, controlling for race, gender, and city of residence. All variables used in this study came from the Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.) data collected by Esbensen (1999). The analysis indicated that females held more favorable attitudes toward the police than males, Whites held more favorable attitudes toward the police than non-Whites, and juveniles living in small rural/suburban areas held more favorable attitudes than those living in large urban areas. The major finding of this study was that a spurious relationship existed between prior victimization and attitudes toward the police with delinquency being the true predictor of juveniles' attitudes. A possible explanation for this finding is that those juveniles at the greatest risk of victimization are the same ones committing the majority of the delinquent acts.

Violence in all forms poses a concern because of associations with multiple adverse effects including injuries and mental health problems. There is however limited data on violence in general and youth violence in particular in Ghana. To explore the nature and scope of youth violence in Ghana, we used the nationwide Global School-based Health Survey, conducted among senior high school students in Ghana, to explore risk and protective factors at the individual, family, and environmental levels associated with sexual and physical violence victimization. A fifth of these students reported being forced to have sex in their lifetime while two out of five had been a victim of a physical attack in the year preceding the survey. In final multivariate analysis, for sexual violence victimization, history of sexual activity with or without condom use at last sex, feeling sad or hopeless, and being a victim of bullying and electronic bullying were identified as risk factors, while having friends who were not sexually active was protective. Independent risk factors for physical violence victimization were attempting suicide in the last year, alcohol use in the past month, and bullying other students in the past month. Parent respect for privacy just reached significance as a protective factor for physical violence victimization in the final model. Recognition of the magnitude of violence victimization among Ghanaian students and associated factors must be used to guide development and implementation of appropriate concrete measures to prevent and address the problem. .

Denna studie syftar till att undersöka sambandet mellan kriminalitet, viktimisering och exponering för kriminogena situationer. Självrapporterad data samlades in vid tre tillfällen från 525 Malmöungdomar, varav 320 uppfyllde studiens inkluderingskriterier. Resultaten visar att mycket tid spenderad oövervakad, mycket tid ägnad åt ostrukturerade aktiviteter, mycket tid i sällskap med vänner samt alkoholkonsumtion samvarierar med brottslighet och viktimisering i varierande utsträckning. Sambanden varierar dock i förhållande till de båda utfallsvariablerna och deltagarnas ålder. Livsstils-rutinaktivitetsteorin kan förklara resultaten men behöver i framtiden ta större hänsyn till ålder. Studiens två slutsatser är att (1) brottslighet och viktimisering bör betraktas som två olika men klart relaterade företeelser i förhållande till exponering för kriminogena situationer och att (2) ålder måste tas i beaktande i forskning om exponering för kriminogena situationer eftersom sambanden mellan exponering och de båda utfallsvariablerna varierar från tidiga till sena tonår. / This study aims to examine offending and victimization in relation to situational criminogenic exposure. Self-reported data was collected at three occasions from a sample of 525 adolescents in Malmö, of which 320 fulfilled the study’s inclusion criteria. The results show that spending a lot of time unsupervised, pursuing unstructured activities, spending a lot of time with peers, and alcohol use, are associated with offending and victimization to various extent. However, the associations vary according to outcome and in relation to the participants’ age. Lifestyle-Routine Activities Theory may explain the findings, but needs to consider age as an important factor in the future. The two conclusions from this study are that (1) offending and victimization should be treated as two different, yet related concepts in relation to situational criminogenic exposure, and that (2) it is important to add an age dimension to the study of situational criminogenic exposure because the associations between the exposure variables and the outcome variables vary from early to late adolescence.

Syftet med denna studie var att titta på kriminalitet, brottsutsatthet och narkotika ien ungdomsgrupp. Även samband mellan dessa tre variabler studerades. Dettagjordes genom en enkätstudie som besvarades av gymnasieungdomar i åldrarna16-21 år. Tidigare forskning på området visar att den mest förekommandenarkotikasorten som ungdomar provar är marijuana. Lindrigare stöldbrott, somsnatteri, är enligt tidigare studier det vanligaste brottet. 12,7 % av deltagarna idenna studie har någon gång provat narkotika och det vanligaste brottet somungdomar har begått är lindrigare stöldbrott. I studien kommer vi fram till att detfinns ett samband, både mellan kriminalitet och narkotikaanvändning, ochbrottsutsatthet och narkotikaanvändning. Sambandet med att ha provat narkotikavar starkare för den egna kriminaliteten jämfört med brottsutsattheten. Socialtumgänge hade en korrelation med narkotikaanvändning där de som umgicks mermed sina vänner och ”driver runt” oftare hade provat narkotika. / The purpose with this study was to look at crime, victimization and narcotics in ayouth group. The correlation between these three variables was studied as well.This was done by doing a survey that was answered by high school students in theage between 16-21 years old. Previous research in this area has come to theconclusion that the most frequent kind of narcotics being used by youths ismarijuana. Kinds of larceny, like shoplifting, is according to previous research themost common crime performed by youths. 12, 7 % of the participants have usedsome type of narcotics and the most common crime in this youth group waslarceny. In the study we find a correlation, both between crime and use ofnarcotics, as well as between victimization and having tried narcotics. Thecorrelation between narcotic use and victimizations was stronger then the onebetween narcotics and crime. Social company had a correlation with usingnarcotics where the ones that spent more time with their friends “doing nothing”more often had used narcotics.

The aim of the given study is to investigate the impact of the legal as well as the sociocultural systems of Iran on the secondary victimization of rape victims in the country. As a theoretical background of the study, two feminist theories, Feminist criminology and Radical Feminist, will be used. By the help of these theories the influences of patriarchy on secondary victimization of rape victims in Iran will be explained. While case study is used to frame the design of the study, qualitative content analysis will also be used to collect the needed data through analyzing different sources and materials. The findings show that the lack of comprehensive laws regarding rape crime in Iran and the way service providers view and perceive rape victims have led to re-victimization of rape victims. Moreover, analyzing the sociocultural system of the country demonstrated that the prevalence of rape myths and gender inequality in the society have also contributed to re-victimization of such victims. The author believes that establishing new comprehensive laws regarding rape crime and changing the service providers and people’s attitudes regarding rape crime and rape victims through education are the most appropriate solutions for this problem.

Digital technologies has become the leading way for individuals to communicate, but despite its many advances it may also be misused for harmful behaviors. Over the last decade cyberbullying has become a serious social health problem worldwide. It has been estimated that roughly 20 to 40% of all adolescents will experience at least one act of cyberbullying. Even though an extensive amount of research has been carried out some uncertainties remains, for instance whether there are any gender differences in experiences. The overarching aim with the current review was to analyze the role of gender in cyberbullying victimization among European adolescents. The specific aspects explored were gender differences in victimization and misused technological platforms. In order to achieve the aim a systematic review of recent evidence was carried out. Based on established inclusion criteria searches for both published and non-published articles were made in the databases of EBSCOhost, ProQuest and other sources. The selection process identified seven eligible studies that were included for analysis. The prevalence rate of cyberbullying victimization was ranging from 5% to 28%, with one study reporting higher frequencies. The findings implied a slightly higher likelihood among girls. However, the technological platforms used for victimization were similar for both boys and girls, some of the more frequently misused platforms were social networking sites, instant messaging and text messages. The review findings suggest prevention strategies are directed toward the most popular technological environments, with a somewhat stronger emphasis on girls.

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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC; 2012) reported that intimate partner violence (IPV) affects approximately 4.8 million females and 2.8 million males in their intimate relationships each year. Past research (e.g., Fanslow, Robinson, Crengle, & Perese, 2010; Foshee et al., 1996; Foshee et al., 2009) on IPV solely evaluated prevalence rates and factors within opposite-sex relationships; however, IPV within lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) individuals' relationships exists at equal, if not higher, rates compared to their heterosexual counterparts (Alexander, 2008; McKenry, Serovich, Mason, & Mosak, 2006). Subsequently, a gap in research existed on violence in LGBTQ individuals' samesex relationships and the need existed for further exploration of IPV within same-sex couples (McKenry et al., 2006; Turell, 2000). The purpose of this study was an examination of the relationships among victimization rates (Victimization in Dating Relationships [VDR] and Safe Dates-Psychological Abuse Victimization [SD-PAV]), perpetration rates (Perpetration in Dating Relationships [PDR] and Safe Dates-Psychological Abuse Perpetration [SD-PAP]), and attitudinal acceptance of IPV (Acceptance of Couple Violence [ACV]) among LGBTQ college students. The specific goals of the study were to (a) identify the IPV victimization rates and perpetration rates among LGBTQ college students, and (b) examine the attitudinal acceptance of IPV in LGBTQ college students. The statistical analyses used to examine the four research questions and seven subsequent hypotheses included (a) Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) and (b) Multiple Linear Regression (MLR). The results identified that significant mean differences (p < .01; ŋ 2 P = .16) existed between females and males in their reported levels of victimization and perpetration, suggesting a large effect size with biological sex accounting for 16% of the variance across the four victimization and perpetration variables. Specifically, females self-reported higher levels of psychological and emotional victimization compared to males (p < .01; ŋ 2 P = .05), suggesting that females in same-sex relationships reported greater psychological abuse from their female partners. In addition, results identified significant mean differences between males and females in their levels of attitudinal acceptance of IPV (p < .01; ŋ 2 P = .13), suggesting a medium effect size that biological sex accounted for 13% of the variance in attitudinal acceptance of IPV scores. In considering gender expression, results from the study identified that in females and males, those self-identifying with greater amounts of masculinity reported an increased amount of victimization and perpetration (p < .01; ŋ 2 P = .15). The results identified a large effect size in that 15% of the variance in victimization and perpetration rates were accounted for by the interaction of biological sex and gender expression. Furthermore, in females and males, those self-identifying with greater amounts of masculinity reported higher levels of attitudinal acceptance of IPV (p < .01; ŋ 2 P = .12). The results identified a medium effect size in that 12% of the variance in attitudinal acceptance of IPV was accounted for by the interaction of biological sex and gender expression. In regards to a history of childhood abuse and witnessing parental IPV, participants with a history of child abuse and a history of witnessing parental IPV did not differ in their levels of victimization, perpetration, or attitudinal acceptance of IPV from those without a history of childhood abuse and witnessing parental IPV. Finally, variables such as (a) biological sex, (b) gender expression, (c) past childhood abuse, (d) witnessing parental IPV, (e) v VDR, (f) SD-PAV, (g) PDR, and (h) SD-PAP predicted attitudinal acceptance of IPV in this LGBTQ college student sample. The results identified that linear composite of these eight predictor variables predicted 93% (R 2 = .93) of the overall variance in participants' attitudinal acceptance of IPV total score (p < .01). Overall, the results identified that females reported higher levels of psychological victimization meaning that a female LGBTQ college student potentially experiences more risk of becoming a victim in a relationship. In addition, results identified that LGBTQ college students identifying as masculine present a potentially greater risk for both victimization and perpetration in their same-sex relationships. Self-identifying masculine LGBTQ college students reported greater amounts of acceptance of same-sex IPV, which possibly explains the lack of IPV reports from these college students. Finally, the results identified that individual and family-of-origin factors do, in fact, predict LGBTQ college students' levels of attitudinal acceptance of IPV. In other words, an LGBTQ college students' biological sex, gender expression, past childhood experiences, victimization rates, and perpetration rates all relate to the prediction of their attitudes about IPV. Implications for future research included the need to further examine college students engaging either in an opposite-sex or same-sex relationship, exploring the relationships between masculinity and femininity in their reported levels of victimization, perpetration, and attitudinal acceptance of IPV. The need to replicate this study exists in order to ensure inclusiveness of individuals across all sexual orientations and gender identities in college students. In addition, several significant findings from this study further substantiate the need for continued research in the area of same-sex IPV, especially utilizing a sample of LGBTQ college students, to inform (a) clinical assessment in college counseling clinics and community agencies, (b) IPV protocol development, and (c) culturally sensitive, modified intervention based on the current findings.