Ce travail porte sur les complexes des métaux de transitions pour la catalyse de la réduction des protons en hydrogène. La nature de l’espèce catalytiquement active mise en jeu lors du processus de réduction a été étudiée par voltampérométrie cyclique afin de comprendre le rôle et le mode d’action de ces complexes. Le premier chapitre introduit le contexte et les principaux objectifs de ce travail. Le deuxième chapitre propose une étude électochimique de complexes de cobalt et de nickel à ligands bis(glyoxime) et clathrochélates en phase homogène. Leur comportement en présence d’acide et en condition réductrice est décrit et un mécanisme réactionnel associé est proposé. L’influence des ligands de la sphère de coordination sur le comportement électrochimique de ces complexes a été rationalisé par le biais de substitution des groupements présents sur les ligands bis(glyoxime) et clathrochélates. Le troisième chapitre aborde le rôle de pré-catalyseur que peuvent tenir ces complexes en condition d’électrolyse réductrice et en milieu acide. L’électrosynthèse de nanoparticules catalytiques à partir de ces complexes a mis en évidence le rôle majeur des ligands bis(glyoxime) et clathrochélates dans ce phénomène d’électrodéposition. Ces résultats montrent que ces ligands peuvent être utilisés pour contrôler la nature et l’activité de nanoparticules catalytiques pour la réduction des protons en dihydrogène. Le quatrième chapitre vise à immobiliser les complexes de cobalt à ligand clathrochélate au sein de réseaux de coordination afin d’optimiser leur activité catalytique. Malgré la faible solubilité et l’encombrement stérique de ces complexes, des synthèses en conditions très douces ont abouti à la formation de réseaux mono et bi-dimensionels à base d’ions cadmium(II). / My PhD thesis goal was to investigate on the catalytic properties of first row transition metal complexes for the hydrogen evolving reaction (HER). The underlying question in the field concerning the catalytic species of metal complexes for the HER was then, whether it is homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysis. My work concerns the synthesis and characterization of oximato based cobalt and nickel complexes and their electrochemical behavior in presence of acids.In the first chapter, I give a general introduction on the search for catalytic molecular systems for the production of hydrogen. I also give an overview of my approach tackling the problem of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. In the second chapter I discuss on the electrochemical study of cobalt and nickel complexes containing bis(glyoxime) ligands and clathrochelates complexes in homogeneous phase. Their electrochemical behavior under reductive conditions in presence of acids is described. The absence of molecular based catalysis is discussed and a mechanistic pathway for the consumption of protons and electrons is proposed. The influence of the ligands in the coordination sphere has been rationalized through substitutions of the chemical groups on the bis(glyoxime) and clathrochelates ligands. The third chapter concerns the generation of catalytic material from the molecular precursors in acidic reductive conditions. Electrochemically modified glassy carbon electrodes were characterized by TEM and evidenced the formation nanoparticles containing the initial metal ions (either cobalt of nickel). Our results show that the chemical nature of the ligands can be used in order to control the nature and reactivity patterns of these catalytically active nanoparticles for proton reduction into hydrogen.In the forth chapter, I give the preliminary results on the immobilization the cobalt clathrochelates complexes inside coordination networks in order to improve their catalytic activity. Despite the weak solubility and the bulk of these complexes, mild conditions synthesis have led to mono and bi-dimensional networks based on cadmium (II) ions.To conclude I emphasize on the different ways that can be followed to further pursue this quest for catalytic materials for the HER starting with molecular based complexes as precursors.

Neste trabalho foram preparados eletrodos compósitos grafite-poliuretana modificados com polímeros metacrilatos com impressão molecular (EGPU-MIP) visando a determinação de ácido fólico (FA) e forma ácida do diclofenaco (DCF), os quais foram usados como moléculas molde. O objetivo principal era avaliar o desempenho dos MIPs em relação à seletividade e sensibilidade, além da inovação em relação ao uso dos compósitos como material de eletrodo, relativamente a esses analitos. No caso do FA, os MIP foram preparados com essa molécula, relativamente grande e contendo vários grupos funcionais, para avaliar o efeito dessas características no desempenho do sensor. Inicialmente foram feitos estudos exploratórios usando voltametria cíclica (CV), nos quais o FA apresentou pico irreversível de oxidação em +0,80 V (vs. SCE) e picos reversíveis de redução em -0,40 e -0,65 V (vs. SCE), com respectivos processos de oxidação em -0,33 e -0,49 V (vs. SCE). Foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico para determinação do fármaco usando voltametria de pulso diferencial (DPV), após otimizar parâmetros tais como composição de MIP no sensor de (2,5%, m/m), amplitude de pulso (a = 50 mV), velocidade de varredura (ν = 10 mV s-1) e meio eletrolítico (tampão acetato, pH = 4,5). Nesse procedimento, determinou-se uma mesma região linear de resposta entre 0,6 e 2,0 µmol L-1 para os dois picos de redução em -0,52 e -0,58 V (vs. SCE), com limites de detecção (LOD) de 0,17 e de 0,03 &micromol L-1, respectivamente. O pico em -0,58 V mostrou-se mais sensível e foi escolhido para determinar o FA nas formulações farmacêuticas Folacin&reg, Afopic&reg e Folifolim&reg, com resultados concordantes com o método oficial baseado na Cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), em 95% de confiança, segundo o teste t-Student. O MIP-FA mostrou-se mais seletivo que o polímero sem impressão molecular (NIP-DCF) frente às interferências do metotrexato (MTX), porem o ácido ascórbico (AA), ácido úrico (UA) e dopamina (DA) mostraram interferências, em relação aos grupos funcionais presentes nessas espécies, com forte influência da rigidez estrutural e da mobilidade rotacional de tais grupos. Outro MIP foi sintetizado com impressão para DCF. A voltametria cíclica mostrou que o DCF apresenta pico irreversível de oxidação em + 0,83 V (vs. SCE), na primeira varredura e picos reversíveis de redução em +0,40 e +0,65 V (vs. SCE), a partir da segunda varredura, com respectivos processos de oxidação em +0,27 e +0,58 V (vs. SCE). Foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico para determinação do fármaco em formulações comerciais, usando DPAdASV, após otimização dos parâmetros tais como composição de MIP no sensor (2,5%, m/m), tempo de acumulação (300 s) e potencial de pré-concentração (+0,2 V), a = 50 mV, ν = 10 mV s-1 em ácido perclórico pH condicional (pHcond) = 1,6, com uma região linear entre 0,010 e 0,20 nmol L-1 e LOD de 0,99 nmol L-1 para o pico anódico em +0,8 V (vs. SCE). O DCF foi determinado nas formulações farmacêuticas Biofenac&reg, Medley&reg e Voltaren&reg e em urina sintética. O MIP-DCF se mostrou relativamente seletivo ao sinal do DCF, mesmo na presença dos interferentes como ácido meclofenâmico (AMCFN) e ácido mefenâmico (AMFN), os quais apresentam grande semelhança estrutural e funcional em relação ao analito. Deve-se tomar cuidado ao estender o intervalo de potencial operacional para o GPU, neste meio de ácido perclórico, para evitar ativação de grupos funcionais do grafite e/ou da PU. / In this work methacrylate molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) were prepared using folic acid (FA) as well as diclofenac (DCF) templates. These MIPs were used in the modification of graphite-polyurethane (GPU) composites in order to evaluate the performance of the resulting electrodes in the determination of the templates in pharmaceutical formulations and to estimate the sensitivity and selectivity of the resulting devices joined to the innovation of using the composites in such development regarding these analytes. In the case of FA, MIPs were prepared with this relatively large and containing multiple functional groups, to evaluate the effect of such characteristics in the performance of the sensor. First of all exploratory experiments were performed using cyclic votammetry (CV) in which the FA presented an irreversible oxidation peak at + 0.80 V (vs. SCE) and reversible reductions peaks at -0.40 and -0.65 V (vs. SCE) with respective oxidation at -0.33 and -0.49 V (vs. SCE). An analytical procedure was developed based on differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), after optimizing parameters such as MIP composition in the sensor (2.5%, m/m), pulse amplitude (a = 50 mV), scan rate (ν = 10 mV s-1) and supporting electrolyte (acetate, pH = 4.5). In such procedure was obtained a linear dynamic range from 0.6 to 2.0 &micromol L-1 for both DPV reduction peaks at -0.52 and -0.58 V (vs. SCE), with limit of detection (LOD) of 0.17 and 0.03 &micromol L-1, respectively. As the second on was more sensitive it was chosen for the determination of FA in the commercial pharmaceutical formulation Folacin&reg, Afopic&reg and Folifolim&reg,with results that agreed with those from the official HPLC procedure within 95% confidence level according to the t-Student test. The MIP-FA was more selective than the non-imprinted polymer (NIP-DCF) in relation to the interference of metotrexate (MTX), however ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and dopamine (DA) revealed significant interferences regarding the functional groups present in these species, with strong influence from the structural rigidity of the molecule that plays an important role in the rotational mobility of these groups. Another MIP was synthesized with DCF as a template. Cyclic voltammetry demonstrated that the DCF presented a single irreversible oxidation peak at + 0.83 V (vs. SCE) in the first scan, and two reversible reduction peaks at +0.40 and +0.65 V (vs. SCE) with respective oxidation at +0.27 and +0.58 V (vs. SCE), from the second scan. A DPAdASV procedure was also developed for the determination of DCF in commercial formulations after optimizing some experimental parameters such as MIP composition in the sensor (2.5%, m/m), accumulation time (300 s) and potential (+0.2 V), a = 50 mV, v = 10 mV s-1 and supporting electrolyte (perchloric acid pHcond = 1.6). A linear dynamic range from 0.010 to 0.20 nmol L-1 and a LOD of 0.99 nmol L-1 were observed for the anodic peak at +0.8 V (vs. SCE). Then the DCF was determined in the commercial formulations Biofenac&reg, Medley&reg and Voltaren&reg and also in synthetic urine samples. The MIP-DCF sensor showed to be selective regarding the DCF signal even in the presence of meclophenamic acid (AMCFN) and mefenamic acid (AMFN), which present structural and functional similarity when compared with the analyte. Care must be taken when using the GPU in extreme potential windows in the perchloric acid medium, to avoid activation of functional groups in the polymer.

O aumento nos índices de criminalidade, na maioria das vezes decorrente de atividades ligadas ao tráfico de drogas, afeta drasticamente a qualidade de vida do ser humano. A análise instrumental de entorpecentes é realizada comumente por métodos cromatográficos, oferecendo limites de detecção (LDs) em torno de 1 ng mL-1. As técnicas analíticas como voltametria, amperometria, potenciometria, dentre outras, assemelham-se às técnicas convencionais de análise, pois além de se mostrarem sensíveis para a análise de traços de substâncias orgânicas e inorgânicas, oferecem vantagens operacionais como a compreensão de mecanismos pato-fisiológicos de várias drogas, dentre elas a cocaína e seus metabólitos. Os eletrodos quimicamente modificados (EQMs) com bases de Schiff (grupos funcionais que contém uma ligação dupla carbono-nitrogênio com o átomo de nitrogênio conectado a um grupo arila ou alquila) desenvolvidos para a determinação de cocaína em amostras de interesse forense podem ser empregados em situação de análise por injeção em fluxo (FIA). Cuja metodologia consiste na inserção de uma alíquota de amostra em um fluido carregador que a transporta do ponto de injeção até a unidade de detecção. Atualmente a análise de cocaína está limitada à dosagem posterior de amostras apreendidas, uma vez que não há nenhum dispositivo portátil para a detecção da mesma em local de crime. Assim, este projeto visa desenvolver uma metodologia voltamétrica, por meio de eletrodos quimicamente modificados com bases de Schiff, e da aplicação dos mesmos em FIA para a detecção de cocaína em amostras de interesse forense. / The increase in crime occurrences, mostly due to activities linked to drug trafficking, dramatically affects the quality of human life. The instrumental analysis of drugs is commonly performed by chromatographic methods, offering limits of detection (LD) around 1 ng mL-1. Analytical techniques such as voltammetry, amperometry, potentiometry, among others, are similar to conventional analysis techniques, as well as prove sensitive for trace analysis of organic and inorganic substances, provide operational advantages as the understanding of pathophysiological mechanisms of several drugs, among them cocaine and its metabolites. The chemically modified electrodes (CMEs) with Schiff bases (functional groups containing a carbon-nitrogen double bond with the nitrogen atom attached to an alkyl or aryl group) developed for the determination of cocaine in samples of forensic interest can be used in situation of flow injection analysis (FIA). The methodology consists of inserting a sample rate of a carrier fluid that carries the point of injection to the detection unit. The analysis is limited to the dosage cocaine samples seized previously, since there is no portable device for detection in the same scene. Thus, this project aims to develop a voltammetric methodology, by means of chemically modified electrodes with Schiff bases, and applying them in the FIA for the detection of cocaine in samples of forensic interest.

In this work a new material, the conducting polymer-DNA composite, has been reported for the first time due to its promise in micro extraction, transfer, and release of cations under controlled potential conditions by using electrochemically assisted solid phase micro extraction (SPME). The Polypyrrole/DNA composite can be formed easily by oxidation of pyrrole monomers in the presence of chromosomal DNA by electropolymerization. Environmental significant pollutants such as Cd, Pb, Hg, Co, Zn, Cu, and Bi metal ions can be extracted from the aqueous solution and are able to be transferred to another medium defined as the release solution where the metals were detected by anodic stripping voltammetry. Using Cd2+ as a model, this method has been examined to optimize its operational condition. Extraction efficiency and potential interference for this method were studied.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Chemistry) / There is growing concern on endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). The presence of drugs in water supplies was first realized in Germany in the early 1990s when environmental scientists discovered clofibric acid. Clofibric acid has the ability to lower cholesterol in ground water below a water treatment plant. Endocrine disrupting compounds can be defined as those chemicals with the ability to alter daily functioning of the endocrine system in living organisms. There are numerous molecules that are regarded or referred to as EDCs such as but not limited to organochlorinated pesticides, industrial chemicals, plastics and plasticizers, fuels, estrogens and many other chemicals that are found in the environment or are in widespread use. 17?- estradiol is the principal estrogen found in mammals during reproductive years. Estriol is produced in large quantities during pregnancy. 17?-estradiol is the strongest, estriol the weakest. Estriol is water soluble, estrone and estradiol are not. Although estrogen is produced in women they are also at risk of over exposure to estrogen. Pesticides are extensively used today in agricultural settings to prevent and control pests. Various pesticides, including banned organochlorines (OCs) and modern non-persistent pesticides, have shown the ability to disrupt thyroid activity, disturbing the homeostasis of the thyroid system. Because these EDCs have adverse effects on health of both human and wildlife, it is imperative to develop viable costeffective analytical methods for the detection of these EDCs in complicated samples and at very low concentrations. Very high selectivity towards particular compounds is a very important property for the suitability of a detection method. This is because these compounds mostly coexist in complex matrices which makes the detection of a specific compound very challenging. It is paramount to develop highly sensitive and selective methods for the detection of these estrogens and phosphoric acid-based pesticides at trace levels. / 2021-08-31

Access to safe water supply--a major determinant of public health--is less than 50% in Madagascar, and access to piped, treated water remains out of reach financially for many in the urban and peri-urban areas where available. The Self-supply option of the Pitcher Pump has been meeting the need for household water in coastal areas of Madagascar since the early 1960s and has proven a sustainable option for many. These pumps make use of leaded components in the construction, however, which may pose a health risk for heavy metal intoxication and therefore cause the water to be unsafe for drinking and cooking. This study assesses the potential for lead (Pb) leaching from Pitcher Pump systems into water at levels of health concern. The objectives of this study are to assess Pb concentrations in water drawn from Pitcher Pumps, to determine the relationship between various factors and the Pb levels, to make a preliminary assessment of public health implications of Pb contamination, and to offer informed recommendations to reduce the likelihood of consuming contaminated water. A field study was undertaken to measure concentrations of dissolved Pb in water from Pitcher Pumps under recently flushed and first-draw pumping conditions at 18 households in the city of Tamatave, Madagascar. Variables potentially affecting Pb leaching were determined including pump age, depth to the well screen, pump manufacturer, season of sample collection, and basic water quality indicators. Sampling campaigns were conducted three times over the course of eight months. Time-release case studies were also carried out at two households to determine the time scale over which the Pb concentration in stationary water reaches equilibrium with the Pb-containing system components. Pilot studies of iron (Fe)-for-Pb substitution of select pump system components were carried out at the same two households to attribute the major contribution of Pb leaching to one set of parts and to assess one strategy for decreasing dissolved Pb concentrations. Finally, the Internal Exposure Uptake Biokinetic Model for Lead in Children (IEUBK Model) of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was employed to estimate realistic blood lead levels (BLLs) in children under five years of age, based on Pb concentrations measured in the water. Of the 18 pumps sampled, 15 produced at least one sample exceeding the World Health Organization (WHO) provisional guideline of 10 [um]g/L dissolved Pb in water. Specifically, 67% of all samples showed concentrations above 10 [um]g/L under first-draw pumping conditions. Flushing the pumps prior to use decreased the Pb levels significantly (p < 0.0001), with only 35% of samples exceeding the provisional guideline. Under flushed conditions, the median Pb concentration in pumped water was 9 [um]g/L, down from 13 [um]g/L at one hour of inactivity. No statistically significant correlations were observed between measured Pb concentrations and factors like the season of sample collection, pump age, manufacturer, or water quality indicators like pH or temperature. Under first-draw conditions, the concentration of Pb in water increased with increasing duration of pump inactivity, until equilibrium was reached with the leaded pump components. For two pumps, substitution of Fe valves for Pb greatly decreased Pb concentrations in the water, from 37-100 [um]g/L and 7-24 [um]g/L down to 3-4 [um]g/L and 2-8 [um]g/L, respectively. Model-predicted geometric mean BLLs in children range from about 2-8 [um]g/dL, in some instances exceeding the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guideline for an elevated BLL (5 [um]g/dL), depending on the exposure concentrations. This study finds that water provided by Pitcher Pump systems in Madagascar frequently exceeds the WHO provisional guideline value for safe consumption under first-draw conditions, and may do so even after flushing the pumps. The Pb concentrations measured in the field have the potential to elevate BLLs in children under five to levels implicated in serious health issues. Leaching of Pb into the water is therefore an issue of concern for users of the Pitcher Pump systems in Tamatave, and likely for other areas served by this technology. Flushing the pumps before water collection generally reduces Pb levels in the water. These results suggest that most of the Pb leaches from pure Pb check valve weights at the mouth of the pump, and consequently, a substitution of Fe weights on the valves greatly reduces Pb concentrations and the probability for exceeding the WHO provisional guideline. Relatively simple operational changes on the part of the pump manufacturers and the pump users might, therefore, help to ensure the continued sustainability of Pitcher Pumps in eastern Madagascar.

Le mode d’action des traitements médicaux fait généralement intervenir des interactions entre une (des) molécule(s) et une (des) cible(s) protéique(s) de l’organisme. Au sein de notre équipe, le choix s’est porté vers l’APN, protéine connue depuis les années 2000, pour être impliquée dans les processus d’angiogenèse i.e. la formation de nouveaux vaisseaux sanguins à partir de vaisseaux préexistants, et de migration cellulaire. Compte tenu de la pertinence thérapeutique des fonctions de l’APN et de leur validation lors d’études in vivo, la conception de voies de synthèse simples et efficaces menant à l’inhibiteur le plus puissant et sélectif de l’APN est devenu un des objectifs premier du laboratoire : 3 voies de synthèses sont décrites. Par ailleurs, notre laboratoire s’est intéressé à une nouvelle classe de composés comportant un groupement ferrocényle. En effet, les composés organométalliques suscitent un intérêt grandissant dans le développement de thérapies anticancéreuse ou encore les maladies tropicales. Ses possibilités réactionnelles étendues combinées à ses remarquables propriétés électrochimiques donnent lieu à des molécules nouvelles aux propriétés biologiques étonnantes. Ayant développé la molécule la plus puissante vis-à-vis de l’APN, ses impressionnantes propriétés inhibitrices peuvent être exaltées en créant des molécules à activité duale : inhibitrice de l’APN et cytotoxique vis-à-vis des cellules tumorales. La synthèse de ces composés hybrides ainsi que l’évaluation de leurs effets envers deux cibles, l’APN (porcine et d’Escherichia coli) et les cellules HT1080 (cellules de type fibrosarcome exprimant fortement l’APN), sont décrites dans cette thèse. / APN/CD13, a zinc dependent metallo-peptidase ectoenzyme widespread in human tissues is emerging as a new target in cancer therapy. Indeed several studies indicate that APN/CD13 plays an active role in angiogenesis and tumor metastasis. We already prepared a series of (±)-1,4-disubstituted-7-amino-benzocyclohepten-6-ones and discovered the extraordinary inhibitory power of the 1-bromo-4-phenyl derivative (Ki = 60 pM) on mammalian APN/CD13. As recent crystallographic works in collaboration with the Paul Scherrer Institut have revealed that only the (S) enantiomer was efficiently binded to the enzyme active site, we recently developed a new synthetic pathway to prepare this optically pure molecule in benzo-oxepine series. In parallel we prepare analogs equipped with at least one ferrocenyl moiety of potential intrinsic additional cytotoxicity.

L’hydrogène est la solution potentielle pour réussir la transition énergétique d’un système actuel basé en grande partie sur les combustibles fossiles vers un système non émetteur de gaz toxiques et respectueux de l’environnement. Cependant, le stockage de l’hydrogène est un grand défi qui freine son application pratique dans les différents domaines. Les hydrures métalliques permettent de stocker une grande quantité d’hydrogène de façon réversible dans de bonnes conditions (Température, pression, sécurité…) comparée aux autres modes de stockage (gazeux et liquide). En plus, ces mêmes matériaux sont utilisés comme électrode négative dans les batteries Nickel-Métal Hydrure.Dans la première partie de cette thèse, les alliages Ti-Fe ont été synthétisés parmécanosynthèse pour différents temps de broyage et différents rapports massiquesbilles/poudre. Afin d’optimiser les paramètres d’élaboration, ces alliages ont été caractérisés par différentes techniques telles que la diffraction des rayons X, la microscopie électronique à balayage, la chronopotentiométrie, la chronoampérométrie et la voltamétrie cyclique.Dans une seconde partie, les alliages TiFe+4%MWNTs, TiFe0.95-xMx, TiFe0.90M0.10 etTiFe0.90Mn0.05V0.05 (x=0.05, 0.15) (M : Mn ou V) ont été élaborés selon les paramètres optimaux déterminés précédemment. L’influence de l’additif Nanotubes de Carbone à multiparois (MWNTs), de la substitution partielle du Fe par Mn et/ou V et de l’excès de Titane sur les propriétés structurales, morphologiques et électrochimiques telles que l’activation, la capacité de décharge électrochimique, la réversibilité, la tenue au cyclage, le coefficient de diffusion ont ensuite été étudiés. Les propriétés redox des électrodes, le potentiel de Nernst et la densité du courant d’échange, ont été déterminés, en se basant sur la première loi de Sternet le modèle théorique de Bulter -Volmer.Les résultats électrochimiques obtenus montrent que l’alliage TiFe+4 wt.% MWNTs présente les meilleures performances : une activation rapide (au 1er cycle) et une meilleure capacité maximale de décharge (266 mAh g-1) avec une réversibilité qui reste inchangée. / Hydrogen is the potential solution to make a success of the energy transition of a current system basically based on fossil fuels towards a system friendly to environment. However, the storage of hydrogen is a big challenge that hinders its practical application in different areas.. Metal hydrides can store a large amount of hydrogen reversibly under good conditions (temperature, pressure, safety ...) compared to other storage modes (gaseous and liquid). In addition, these same materials are used as negative electrode in Nickel-Metal Hydride batteriesIn the first part of this thesis, Ti-Fe alloys were synthesized using mechanical alloying (MA) under argon atmosphere at room temperature, with different ball to powder weight ratio and at different milling times. In order to determine the optimal parameters of the elaboration the metallic composite were investigated using different techniques such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (EDS support), chronopotentiometry, chronoamperometry and cyclic voltammetry,In the second part, the metallic compounds, TiFe+4%MWNTs, TiFe0.95-xMx, TiFe0.90M0.10 and TiFe0.90Mn0.05V0.05 (x=0.05, 0.15) (M : Mn or V), which are used as the negative electrode material for Ni-MH secondary batteries, were synthesized by mechanical alloying according to optimal parameters, previously determined.The effect of MWNT addition, the Mn and/or V partial substitution for Fe and the excess of titanium on the structural, morphological and electrochemical parameters such as activation, electrochemical discharge capacity, reversibility, cycle life time and hydrogen diffusion coefficient were investigated.The redox properties of the electrodes such as the Nernst potential and the exchange current density were studied based on Stern’s first law and the theoretical model of Bulter-Volmer.The electrochemical properties of studied samples show the best performance for TiFe+4% MWNTs alloy. Indeed, this alloy presents a rapid activation (1st cycle) and a best discharge capacity (266 mAhg-1) with a reversibility remaining unchanged

Le thème principal de notre travail consistait en la mise en exergue de l'efficience de la mise en œuvre de techniques hybrides associant l’électrochimie à l’élément biologique (biocapteur) ou l’électrochimie aux performances de la spectrométrie de masse (couplage EC-MS). Les informations fournies, jointes aux résultats des mesures en voltampérométrie sur électrodes solides, permettent une bonne compréhension mécanistique quant au devenir oxydatif de substances médicamenteuses. Notre champ d'investigation s'est plus spécifiquement focalisé sur deux familles de molécules psychotropes (les phénothiazines, et une dibenzoazépine). Celles-ci connaissent un usage thérapeutique intensif et un regain d’intérêt pour des applications nouvelles, mais leur utilisation optimale souffre de l’existence d'effets secondaires physiopathologiques importants et dont l’étiologie est encore mal connue. En premier lieu, les résultats de la voltampérométrie cyclique et les différentes modulations en ligne d'une cellule électrochimique couplée à la détection par spectrométrie de masse, nous ont permis de mettre en évidence des différences essentielles dans le devenir des phénothiazines quant aux produits d'oxydations générés. Plus précisément, un comportement clairement distinct entre les phénothiazines garnies de deux (2C) ou trois carbones (3C) entre les deux azotes au niveau de leur chaîne latérale a pu être mis en évidence. Les phénothiazines 3C s'oxydent de manière classique en leur sulfoxyde correspondant. Par contre, les phenothiazines 2C, conjointement à la formation de leur sulfoxyde, souffrent dans des conditions énergiques d’oxydation (persulfate, potentiel élevé) d'une rupture de la chaîne latérale et libèrent la phénothiazine base aisément oxydable et donc subissant elle-même une oxydation. Au vu des structures moléculaires en trois dimensions, nous émettons l’hypothèse que volume trop important de la chaîne latérale des phénothiazines 2C empêcherait le déploiement aisé des structures aromatiques en un radical cation coplanaire lors du phénomène d'oxydation. Les tensions intrastructurelles apparues conduiraient au bris de la chaîne latérale. Différents modes d'oxydation (chimique, électrochimique, enzymatique) ont été utilisés et laissent chacun apparaître la dépendance directe entre la puissance de l'agent oxydant appliqué et les produits d'oxydation obtenus. Chaque technique de détection, de manière individuelle, a bien confirmé la dualité entre les deux groupes de molécules. La mise en commun des divers résultats nous a permis l'identification irrévocable des espèces intermédiaires instables et des composés finaux. Par corollaire, nous avons pu postuler un schéma général d'oxydation pour les dérivés phénothiaziniques. Il nous paraît intéressant de transposer nos résultats aux biotransformations des phénothiazines car les produits identifiés ne possèdent pas l'activité pharmacologique du composé parent mais présentent un profil toxicologique bien répertorié dans la littérature. Nos résultats suggèrent d’approfondir les études de biotransformation afin de déterminer si ‘l’éclatement’ oxydatif des phénothiazines 2C est également observé in vivo. Une relation cause/effet de ces métabolites pourrait ainsi être établie. En deuxième point, au travers de l'association CE/SM ou CE/CL/SM, nous avons étudié l’électroxydation de la clozapine. La génération et l'identification des principaux métabolites de phases I et II, illustre un mimétisme certain avec le CYP450, et nous a permis de confirmer de nombreuses données de la littérature quant à l'oxydation in vivo et in vitro de la clozapine. L'oxydation électrochimique ne génère cependant pas l'ensemble des réactions de métabolisation prises en charge par le système CYP450. Lors de la combinaison CE/SM, par l'absence de séparation chromatographique dans cette configuration, le spectre de masse présente un pic correspondant à un intermédiaire à demi-vie courte, difficilement et rarement mis en évidence: l'ion nitrénium. Cette espèce hautement réactive envers les fonctions thiols des petites molécules et des protéines, se trouve très régulièrement tenue pour responsable majeur de la toxicité avérée de la clozapine. L'apparition plus abondante de dérivés déméthylés démontre l'influence du potentiel appliqué à l'électrode de travail lors de l'oxydation électrochimique. En effet, les processus de déméthylation nécessitent des potentiels élevés pour être observés. En présence de glutathion, aux différents pics antérieurement identifiés, des pics supplémentaires relatifs à la formation d'adduits de GSH sur la CLZ apparaissent. Les courbes voltampérométriques réalisées sur la clozapine suggèrent la distinctement la formation de l'ion nitrénium et d'une nouvelle espèce aisément électroréduite, probablement une structure quinone imine. L'addition de GSH provoque la disparition des pics de réduction de la CLZ. Ces comportements en VC corroborent les interprétations issues des mesures par couplage EC/CL/SM. La dernière partie de notre travail a consisté en la construction d'un biocapteur à pâte de carbone solide avec inclusion au sein de cette matrice de peroxydase de raifort. Basé sur la capacité reconnue de l'HRP à reproduire in vitro des produits d'oxydation similaires à la métabolisation in vivo, nous avons exploité un tel biocapteur pour l'analyse de la clozapine et de composés thiols. Une compréhension fine du mécanisme opérationnel intrinsèque du biocapteur a pu être suggérée. La génération à la surface de l'électrode de l'ion nitrénium par oxydation enzymatique de la clozapine par l'HRP, suivie de sa réduction immédiate fournit un courant ampérométrique substantiel. Sous des conditions de pH optimales, ce courant de réduction autorise la détermination quantitative de la clozapine dans un domaine de linéarité compris entre 1 x 10-5 M et 1 x 10-6 M. L'addition de composés thiols dans le milieu occasionne une chute de courant par action de ceux-ci sur la structure radical cation ou nitrénium par addition nucléophile. La disparition de l'ion nitrénium et la formation d'un adduit GSH-CLZ inhibent tout processus de réduction à l'électrode du biocapteur. Cette diminution de courant proportionnelle aux concentrations en thiols introduits, permet la détermination quantitative de dérivés thiols. Les courbes de calibration exprimées en pourcentage d'inhibition conduisent facilement à l'évaluation de la constante d'inhibition (Ki) et de CI50. L'étude de la réponse ampérométrique de la clozapine à l'EPC/HRP en l'absence ou présence d'un dérivé thiol envisagé permet la détermination de Km et de caractériser le type d'inhibition qui entre en jeu. De tels paramètres cinétiques nous ont habilités à classer les thiols considérés en fonction de leur puissance réactionnelle envers les substances oxydées de la clozapine. Au terme de ce travail, nous espérons avoir illustré, par l’étude de quelques molécules modèles, l’intérêt de la mise en œuvre des techniques électrochimiques couplées à l’élément biologique ou à la spectrométrie de masse. Des améliorations au niveau de la cellule électrochimique sont envisageables par l’emploi d’électrodes modifiées, elles laissent entrevoir la possibilité de mimer totalement le système CYP450. Les résultats fournis par ces techniques hybrides et par voltampérométrie cyclique sont complémentaires, ils procurent un éventail d'informations d'une utilité estimable pour une application dans des études prédictives précoces de candidats médicament.

<p>The main hypothesis in this study is the development of a nanocomposite mediated amperometric biosensor for detection of hydrogen peroxide. The aim is to combine the electrochemical properties of both polyaniline and ferrocenium hexafluorophosphate into highly conductive nano composites capable of exhibiting electrochemistry in non acidic media / shuttling electrons between HRP and GCE for biosensor applications.</p>