Research has shown that collegiate female athletes are oftentimes faced with negotiating meanings of their femininity and their athleticism. Athleticism has traditionally been equated with masculinity, and to be a collegiate athlete requires certain levels of skill, experience, and athletic ability. Therefore, female collegiate athletes are conflicted with managing their identities in order to avoid accusations of their sexuality, which often results in being labeled as deviant. A primary indicator of athleticism is muscularity, which is also considered a masculine trait. In order to stay within gender boundaries, female athletes may go above and beyond to emphasize their femininity, or they may hold back on performance and training to avoid a muscular physique. An area of collegiate athletics that has become increasingly important is the strength and conditioning coach and weight room. These coaches are responsible for training athletes in power and speed development to enhance sport performance and prevent injury. Research has shown, however, that the weight room and activity of lifting weights has not been deemed socially appropriate for women. The purpose of this study was to understand first, how do Division-I female athletes negotiate their femininity and muscularity within the strength and conditioning environment? Second, is there a difference in femininity and muscularity negotiations and management between underclassmen female collegiate athletes and upperclassmen female collegiate athletes? Finally, what aspects of the weight room influence the negotiations of femininity and muscularity among female collegiate athletes? To gain a rich understanding of how female athletes negotiate their femininity with muscularity in the strength and conditioning environment, a qualitative methodology was used. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 14 athletes, from 7 different sports, at a Midwestern Division-I university. Using a critical feminist interactionist theoretical framework, this study found that female collegiate athletes negotiate their meanings of muscularity and femininity in the strength and conditioning environment. Athletes viewed it necessary to place boundaries on their muscularity in regards to size, preferring the `toned' physique. All athletes acknowledged a positive impact on their sport performance, yet some athletes admitted to holding back during strength and conditioning sessions. Others believed that the weight lifting program was not threatening to their muscularity, but explained they would hold back if it did have a `bulking' effect. Finally, some athletes performed additional cardiovascular training to reduce body size. Additional findings suggest that the weight room environment is influential for the female athletes. The public weight room was described as a gendered space that was intimidating. In contrast, the collegiate weight room was a place that was welcoming to the female athletes. The strength and conditioning coach played an important role to the environment and the female athletes. Concluding results show that inconsistent with previous research, there were no consistent findings in attitude or behavior differences between underclassmen and upperclassmen athletes.

South African female swimmers have become a frequent feature in online media articles since zero female swimmers managed to qualify for the 2015 FINA World Championships and the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games. Despite this being a valuable area to focus on, majority of the online articles reviewed have neglected to provide South African female swimmers with the opportunity to share their experiences, perceptions and personal interpretations on being a female swimmer in South Africa. As such, this research study explored the lived experiences of South African female student-athlete swimmers who are in the process of competing at an elite level. A qualitative research approach was utilised in this study, with interpretative phenomenological approach as its paradigmatic point of departure. One in-depth semi-structured interview was conducted with each of the eight South African female student-athlete swimmers from a swimming club located within a Tshwane-based university. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to interpret the transcripts. Six main themes surfaced; the context, the body, the social and relational, the decision, career, and staying afloat. Along with this, numerous corresponding subthemes and two integrated themes (the emotional self and ways of thinking) also emerged from analysis. These themes highlighted the complexity of these participants’ lives as female student-athletes as well as South African female swimmers. These findings can assist coaches, parents, and other relevant role players to gain an enriched understanding of these participants’ experiences and needs so that they may better support and lead this population group; in doing so, they may be better equipped to reach their full potential. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Psychology / MA / Unrestricted

Female collegiate athletes have been identified as a group at risk of developing eating disorders (EDs) and unhealthy weight control behaviors. Interventions grounded in cognitive dissonance theory and those that incorporate mindfulness-based interventions have shown improved body image and reductions in internalization and ED symptomatology over time in female non-athletes. However, few studies have examined the efficacy of intervention programs among female athletes, and, despite early promising results, previous research has been limited in several ways (e.g., methodology, small sample size). The purpose of this study was to conduct a long-term (i.e., three years) qualitative follow-up evaluation of Bodies in Motion (BIM), an ED prevention program developed specifically to acknowledge the unique experience and needs of female athletes with respect to their bodies as women and athletes. Results indicate that, similar to their initial experiences, now-retired athletes reported increased awareness of sport and societal messages and their impact on body image, shifted perspectives in their view of themselves and their bodies, and ongoing use of skills to manage body image in their lives. Further, with the passage of time, athletes continued to report a positive experience in the program and the utility of Bodies in Motion as they navigated challenging life transitions. These results indicate that the Bodies in Motion program has long-term benefits for female collegiate athletes consistent with program aims, even as athletes transition out of their sports.

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ABSTRACT Title: Relative Energy Deficiency in Female Collegiate Track & Field Athletes. Background: Energy deficiency and its consequences have long been studied in female athletes because of it’s potential for increasing risks of illness and injury. Sustaining an energy deficient diet while training and during competition may result in muscle loss and reduction in performance. Studies suggest that athletes competing in sports focusing on appearance or a lean physique are at high risk for energy deficiency. In 2014, the IOC developed the concept of ‘Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport’ (RED-S) to include new components not previously included in the Female Athlete Triad. A study has not yet been completed applying the RED-S paradigm in collegiate track and field athletes. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of RED-S in female collegiate track and field athletes. It was hypothesized that the majority of collegiate track and field athletes experience RED-S. It was also hypothesized that a greater percentage of distance runners experience RED-S than other track and field athletes, including throwers, jumpers, and sprinters. The components of RED-S assessed were menstrual function, bone health, and energy expenditure. Methods: This study was a descriptive cross-sectional study, obtaining data through the use of a questionnaire and a relative energy expenditure index on a population of 12 female collegiate track and field athletes. Data were obtained through the use of a LEAF-Q questionnaire, a three-day food and exercise recall, and body composition analysis. Results: The 12 athletes were a combination of distance runners (n=5), throwers (n=2), and sprinters (n=5). Average subject characteristics were: age (20.6 ±1. 44 years), height (165.6 ±7.5cm), weight (63.58 ± 16.97kg), and body fat percentage (20.9± 7.2). Average energy intake over three days was 2146 kcal (±627), and the average predicted energy expenditure was 2380 kcal (±458). Average hours spent in a catabolic (52.8 ± 24.0), highly catabolic (37.5 ± 25.0), anabolic (19.2 ± 24.0), and highly anabolic state (12.4 ± 21.0). Subjects were in a negative energy balance state the majority of the days analyzed, and 75% of the population had at least one day of dietary recall below 45 kcal/kg FFM/day. Spearman’s rho analysis found a significant inverse correlation between Day 1 hours spent in optimal energy balance (± 400 kcal) and body fat percent (p=0.024, rs= -0.643), and significant positive correlation between Day 1 hours spent in optimal energy balance (± 400 kcal) and fat free mass percentage (p=0.03, rs=0.625). Spearman’s rho analysis also found an inverse correlation between Day 1 hours spent in an energy deficit (s= -0.626), and a positive correlation between Day 1 hours spent in an energy deficit and body fat percentage (p=0.026, rs=0.636). Seven out of twelve participants scored ≥ 8 on the LEAF-Q putting them at risk for RED-S. Conclusion: The study highlights the misleading effect of averaging multiple days of dietary recall on energy balance. When participant’s dietary recalls were assessed day by day the majority of hours were spent in a catabolic state, however when the three days of the recall were averaged the severity of the hours spent in a catabolic state lessened. The associations in this study are consistent with previous studies evaluating the relationships between energy balance deficits and body composition, indicating that longer duration spent in an energy deficit is associated with lower lean and higher fat mass. The findings from the LEAF-Q show that 58% of participants were at risk for RED-S, and half of all participants had or were experiencing menstrual dysfunction.

This study was designed to determine if differences exist between the personalities of injured and non-injured athletes, injured and non-injured athletes in individual sports, and injured and non-injured athletes in team sports. Subjects were forty-three female athletes selected from six intercollegiate teams. The test instrument was the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. Data were analyzed by the two-way analysis of variance. Alpha was .05. Conclusions of the investigation were that the personality of injured athletes does not differ from the personality of non-injured athletes, that non-injured athletes in individual sports are more self-assured than non-injured athletes in team sports, and that the personality of athletes in team sports does not differ from the personality of athletes in individual sports.

Abstract Women in the olympics - A quantitative and qualitative analysis of the representation and portayal of female athletes in the olympics The purpose of the study was to examine how often female athletes occur in swedish sports media and how they are portrayed, in comparison to male athletes. The years studied was 1996 and 2016. Since the female participants increased over those twenty years it was interesting to see if the media followed that development. The study is based on earlier research such as Natalie Koivula and her concepts of the trivialization, infantilization and ambivalens of female athletes. Some theories used in the study is agenda setting, discourse analysis and different gender theories by, among others, Hirdman, Butler and Conell & Pearse. A quantitative and a qualitative analysis has been used in order to determine the representation and portrayal of female athletes. Over 400 articles about the olympics from the newspapers Aftonbladet and Expressen was coded using a content analysis to identify how often female athletes occur in comparison to men. For the discourse analysis 12 articles, three from every newspaper and year was coded using both theories and earlier research. The result shows that there was a difference in both representation and portrayal between men and women in 1996, with men overrepresented in both team sports and individual sports. In 2016 there the results show a complete reversal with women overrepresented in all sports. There was a clear difference in the portrayal of female and male athletes in 1996, where womens looks were described more often than their sporting efforts. In 2016 however the portrayal of women were more similar to men, with a few exceptions. The results of the study from 1996 can be explained by the patriarchal structures that our society is built on. Although the patriarchy still is present it is clear to see that feminism and gender issues have affected the society over the last twenty years, giving female athletes a better chance to be represented and portrayed equally to male athletes.

This is a paper that focuses on mapping the possibilities of development in sports for women in the Växjö based athletic club Växjö AIS. The paper uses Yvonne Hirdmans gender theory which states that women are socially subordinated men in today's society (written 1988). The aim of using this theory, is to see if there is support for Hirdmans theory among female athletes in Växjö AIS during 1984-1998. Hirdman also discusses whether an equal social society is better reached through segregation or integration and therefore the study is categorised after these two ways of sectioning practice and competition in an athletic club.To fulfil this aim, the study is done by conducting two enquiries, the first focuses on newsletters produced by the female athletes themselves, and the other one investigates surveys with earlier female athletes in Växjö AIS during the period investigated. Each study has its own “part-aim” where the newsletters are interpreted to map female self-perception. A large part in the possibilities of development. The survey has as an aim to explain female possibilities of development through an organisational perspective. What gender had the best training facilities, etc.? The paper also compares the survey from female athletes active from 1987-1997 with the guidelines from the Swedish Riksidrottsförbundet (national athletes association) and their equality plan from 1989.The aim is to see if the plan had any effect on possibilities for development among female athletes, comparing before and after the plans were launched.