The diverse outcomes of ubiquitination primarily relate to the flexibility of ubiquitin in forming homo- or heterotypic chains on each of its seven lysine residues which in turn stimulate distinct downstream signaling pathways. These ubiquitin signals must be selectively initiated on the substrate protein and subsequently decoded to facilitate the desired cellular function. These initiation and decoding steps often involve additional post-translational modifications and ubiquitin receptor proteins, but the enzymes and ubiquitin chains involved for many ubiquitinated substrates are not clear. Here, I have explored the initiation and decoding of ubiquitin signals, focusing on lysine-11 (K11) linked polyubiquitin chains and their role in protein degradation. I established in vitro assays to understand how K11-chains are decoded and whether these chains act as a signal for proteasome-mediated degradation. Pure homotypic K11-chains did not bind the proteasome or its associated ubiquitin binding proteins, but did bind to the mitophagy ubiquitin receptors, MyosinVI and TAX1BP1. Heterotypic K11/K48 linkages not only bound the proteasome but also stimulated degradation of the cell cycle substrate, cyclin B1. To further explore the functions of K11-chains I focused on the hypoxia inducible transcription factor (HIF) pathway, as K11-ubiquitination had been implicated in proteasome-independent degradation of the transcription factor. I established an in vitro assay to initiate HIF ubiquitination, via prolyl hydroxylation, and determine the type of ubiquitin chains involved. Recombinant HIF isoforms were rapidly hydroxylated when incubated with cell extracts. Moreover, the levels of iron and small molecule metabolites within the lysates regulated HIF hydroxylation. However, this hydroxylation was insufficient to reproducibly promote HIF ubiquitination or determine the ubiquitin chains involved. While the nature of the polyubiquitin chains formed in the HIF pathway remain elusive, my studies identify distinct roles for homotypic and heterotypic K11-polyubiquitination in proteasome-mediated degradation.

The first type of dynein identified, axonemel dynein (Gibbons and Rowe, 1965), slides adjacent microtubules within the axoneme, generating the force necessary for ciliary and flagellar beating. The outer dynein arm is an important component of the flagellar axoneme, providing up to 60% of the force for flagellar motility. In the absence of the outer arm, cells swim with a slow-jerky motion at about 1/3rd the speed of wild-type cells, and the flagellar beat frequency is markedly reduced. Sixteen genes (ODA1-ODA16) have been identified that are required for outer arm assembly in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In addition, PF13, PF22, and FLA14 are required for outer dynein arm assembly, but their phenotypes are pleiotropic, suggesting that they affect additional flagellar components. Of the uncloned genes, ODA5, ODA8, and ODA10 are of particular interest because they do not encode subunits of the outer arm or the outer dynein arm-docking complex (ODA-DC). Mutant alleles of these genes are unable to complement in temporary dikaryons, suggesting that the gene products interact with each other (Kamiya, 1988). Since the genes encoding all of the known components of the outer dynein arm and the ODA-DC have been characterized, it is of great interest to identify the gene products of these additional, uncloned ODA alleles. The first chapter provides an introduction to the Chlamydomonasflagellum, the dyneins in general, the outer dynein arm in particular, and mutations that impinge on the assembly and regulation of this important axonemal structure. The second chapter addresses the identification and isolation of genomic DNA containing the ODA5 gene. Utilizing a NIT1-tagged oda5-insertional mutant, I identified sequences flanking the site of the inserted NIT1 gene. These sequences were used to isolate wild-type genomic clones spanning the ODA5 gene. When transformed into the oda5 mutant, the wild-type clones rescued the mutant phenotype. These results demonstrated the successful isolation of the ODA5 gene. The third chapter describes the identification of the ODA5 gene and its corresponding cDNA. The rescuing genomic fragments were sequenced. Gene modeling was used to predict intron-exon splice sites. Primers to predicted exons were designed and used to obtain the ODA5 cDNA. The gene structure of Oda5 was analyzed and its predicted amino acid sequence deduced. Secondary structure predictions indicate that Oda5p is likely to contain a series of coiled-coil domains, followed by a poly-glycine sequence and a short, highly charged region. Northern analysis demonstrated that ODA5 gene expression is upregulated by deflagellation, a hallmark of many flagellar mRNAs. Data in CHAPTER IV further characterize the Oda5 protein and its association with the axoneme. Oda5p localizes to the flagellum, consistent with the enhancement in mRNA levels in response to deflagellation. Within the flagellum, Oda5p is an axonemal component that is released from the axoneme upon high salt extraction, as are the ODA-DC and the outer dynein arm. However, Oda5p does not associate with this super-complex in the high salt extract as determined by sucrose gradient sedimentation. Oda5p assembles onto the axoneme independently of the outer dynein arm and the ODA-DC,demonstrating it does not require these complexes for localization. Furthermore, Oda5p assembles onto the axoneme in the oda8, but not the oda10 mutant, demonstrating a role for the Oda10 protein in localization of Oda5p. These data provide the first biochemical evidence for an interaction between Oda5p and Oda10p. CHAPTER V reveals the discovery of a previously unrecognized phenotype exhibited in both oda5 and oda10 mutant strains: a defect in the assembly of a previously unknown flagellar adenylate kinase (AK). The protein levels of this flagellar AK are reduced in oda5 mutant axonemes, as determined by quantitative mass spectrometry. Direct enzymatic assays confirmed a reduction in AK activity in both oda5 and oda10 mutant axonemes, providing a second line of biochemical evidence supporting a complex containing Oda5p and OdalOp. The sequence of the flagellar AK gene and its cDNA were determined. CHAPTER VI details our efforts to identify the ODA10 gene. Genomic clones were isolated, which contain sequences at, or near, the ODA10 locus. Analysis of the genomic clones yielded no insights into the identity of the ODA10 gene. The inability of these clones to rescue the Oda10-motility phenotype indicates that these clones most likely do not contain an intact ODA10 gene. And lastly, CHAPTER VII discusses future experimentation that can be done based on the data provided by the current study.

This thesis primarily focuses on the FoF1-ATP synthase/ATPase complex in the parasitic protist, Trypanosoma brucei. Instead of its normal aerobic function to synthesize ATP, it is required to hydrolyze ATP to maintain the m in the infective bloodstream stage of T. brucei and the related parasite, T. b. evansi. To better understand the composition, structure and function of this druggable target, my work focused on deciphering the function of three of the unique Euglenozoa specific subunits that comprise this complex molecular machine. Furthermore, the ADP/ATP carrier, which provides substrates for the FoF1-ATP synthase/ATPase, was functionally characterized and evaluated if it is physically associated with the complexes of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway.

Uliginosina B é um derivado acilfloroglucinol natural, isolado de espécies de Hypericum nativas da América do Sul. Estudos prévios demonstraram que a uliginosina B apresenta efeitos do tipo antidepressivo e antinociceptivo em baixas doses (até 15 mg/kg, i.p. ou v.o.) e, em doses elevadas (90 mg/kg, i.p.), prejudica a coordenação motora. A atividade antidepressiva depende da ativação da neurotransmissão monoaminérgica e envolve a regulação da homeostase através do balanço de Na+. A atividade antinociceptiva é mediada por receptores opioides e dopaminérgicos da família D2. O efeito atáxico depende da ativação de receptores opioides e dopaminérgicos. Os efeitos parecem ser decorrentes da sua capacidade de inibir a recaptação de monoaminas (especialmente dopamina) com consequente ativação de receptores opioides e monoaminérgicos. O objetivo deste estudo foi aprofundar o conhecimento sobre o mecanismo de ação antinociceptiva de uliginosina B, investigando o envolvimento da neurotransmissão monoaminérgica, glutamatérgica e purinérgica. O tratamento com uliginosina B aumentou a disponibilidade intersticial de dopamina e seu metabólito, ácido homovanílico (HVA), no estriado de ratos; dados que reforçam o papel da neurotransmissão dopaminérgica nos efeitos da uliginosina B. O papel das outras monoaminas e da neurotransmissão glutamatérgica foi investigado nos efeitos antinociceptivo e atáxico induzidos por uliginosina B. A ataxia (90 mg/kg, i.p.) foi completamente prevenida pelo tratamento prévio com pCPA (inibidor da síntese de serotonina) e MK-801 (antagonista do receptor glutamatérgico NMDA), mas não foi afetada pelo prétratamento com prazosina ou ioimbina (antagonistas de receptores adrenérgicos α1 e α2, respectivamente). A atividade antinociceptiva (15 e 90 mg/kg, i.p.) foi reduzida significativamente pelo pré-tratamento com pCPA e MK-801 e aumentada pelo prétratamento com prazosina e ioimbina, apenas na dose mais elevada (90 mg/kg, i.p.). A importância da neurotransmissão monoaminérgica para o efeito antinociceptivo da uliginosina B foi confirmada através da análise isobolar. A associação de uliginosina B com amitriptilina (inibidor da recaptação de monoaminas) ou clonidina (agonista adrenérgico α2) apresentou interação aditiva – dados sugestivos de substâncias com mecanismos de ação mediados pelas mesmas vias – enquanto a associação com morfina (agonista opioide) apresentou interação sinérgica – dados indicativos de um possível uso clínico, como adjuvante opioide na farmacoterapia da dor. O efeito antinociceptivo de uliginosina B (15 mg/kg, i.p.) também foi prevenido pelo tratamento prévio com DPCPX e ZM-241385 (antagonistas de receptores adenosinérgicos A1 e A2A, respectivamente). Este efeito esta relacionado, pelo menos em parte, com a capacidade da uliginosina B aumentar a hidrólise de AMP na medula espinhal e de ATP no córtex cerebral. A uliginosina B também inibiu in vitro a atividade da enzima Na+,K+-ATPase (isoformas α1 e α3). O conjunto de dados apresentados nesta tese evidencia a uliginosina B como um padrão estrutural multirreceptor promissor no desenvolvimento de fármacos com ação analgésica. Em suma, os efeitos antinociceptivo e atáxico induzidos pelo tratamento com uliginosina B são mediados pela ativação da neurotransmissão monoaminérgica, glutamatérgica, purinérgica e opióide, requisitadas com diferente grau de importância; e ainda envolvem o balaço iônico da Na+,K+-ATPase. / Uliginosin B is a natural acylphloroglucinol derivative obtained from Hypericum species native to South America. Previous studies have shown that uliginosin B presents antidepressant-like and antinociceptive effects at low doses (up to 15 mg/kg, i.p. or p.o.), and at high doses (90 mg/kg, i.p.) it impairs the motor coordination. The antidepressant-like activity seems to depend on the activation of monoaminergic neurotransmission and ionic balance of Na+. The antinociceptive effect is mediated by opioid and D2 dopamine receptors. The ataxic effect involves opioid and dopaminergic receptors activation. The uliginosin B effects appear to be a consequence of their ability to inhibit reuptake of monoamines (especially dopamine) with subsequent activation of opioid and monoaminergic receptors. The aim of this study was to deepen our knowledge about the mechanism of antinociceptive action of uliginosin B, investigating the involvement of monoaminergic, glutamatergic and purinergic neurotransmissions. Treatment with uliginosin B increased the interstitial availability of dopamine and its metabolite, homovanillic acid (HVA), in the striatum of rats; these data underscore the role of dopaminergic neurotransmission in the effects of uliginosin B. The role of other monoamines as well as the glutamatergic neurotransmission, were investigated in the antinociceptive and ataxic effects induced by uliginosin B. The ataxic effect (90 mg/kg, i.p.) was completely prevented by pre-treatment with pCPA (a serotonin synthesis inhibitor) and MK-801 (a NMDA glutamatergic receptor antagonist), but was not affected by pretreatment with prazosin or yohimbine (α1 and α2 adrenoceptor antagonists, respectively). The antinociceptive activity (15 and 90 mg/kg, i.p.) was significantly reduced by pretreatment with pCPA and MK-801 and increased by pretreatment with yohimbine and prazosin only at the highest dose (90 mg/kg, i.p.). The importance of monoaminergic neurotransmission for the uliginosin B antinociceptive effect was confirmed by isobolar analysis. The association between uliginosin B with amitriptyline (monoamine reuptake inhibitor) or clonidine (α2 adrenergic agonist) showed additive interaction - findings suggestive of substances with mechanisms of action mediated by the same pathways - while the association with morphine (opioid agonist) showed synergistic interaction - indicative of a possible clinical use as adjuvant to opioid pharmacotherapy of pain relief. The antinociceptive effect of uliginosin B (15 mg/kg, i.p.) was also prevented by pretreatment with DPCPX and ZM-241385 (A1 and A2A adenosinergic receptor antagonists, respectively). This effect is related, at least in part, to its ability of increases the AMP and ATP hydrolysis in the spinal cord and cerebral cortex synaptosomes, respectively. Moreover, uliginosin B inhibited the Na+,K+-ATPase activity (α1 and α3 isoforms) in vitro. The data set presented in this thesis pointed uliginosin B as a promising multirreceptor molecular pattern in the analgesic drug development. In summary, the antinociceptive and ataxic effects induced by uliginosin B were mediated by the activation of monoaminergic, glutamatergic, purinérgico and opioid neurotransmission and involves the ionic balance, required with different degree of importance.

Muitas evidências indicam que exposições a eventos adversos no início da vida, tais como abuso e negligência, aumentam a vulnerabilidade a psicopatologias na vida adulta. Tem sido relatado que psicopatologias podem levar a não apenas prejuízos cognitivos, emocionais e sociais, mas também a uma variedade de alterações neuroquímicas. Separações maternas periódicas no período neonatal têm sido usadas como um modelo animal de eventos adversos no início da vida, avaliando-se seus efeitos sobre aspectos comportamentais e fisiológicos observados na vida adulta. As primeiras duas semanas de vida representam um período crítico para o desenvolvimento neural em ratos. Sabe-se que períodos prolongados de separação materna (SM) podem modificar parâmetros neurobiológicos e comportamentais. Logo, o objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar os efeitos duradouros de SM repetida em diferentes parâmetros, incluindo comportamentos de medo, sociais, cognitivos e alimentar, assim como uma série de análises neuroquímicas. Ratos Wistar machos e fêmeas foram sujeitos a SM repetidas (incubadora a 32°C, 3h/dia) nos dia 1 ao 10 de vida. Na primeira parte deste trabalho, os animais foram expostos à tarefa de Medo Condicionado ao Contexto aos 60 dias de idade. Uma semana após, as atividades da Na+, K+-ATPase e de enzimas antioxidantes foram medidas na amígdala. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, os animais foram expostos ao teste de Interação Social por 15 min aos 70 dias de idade. Foram observadas as frequências e durações dos seguintes comportamentos: cheirar; ataque lateral; ataque frontal; boxing; e tempo gasto sem demonstrar comportamentos sociais. A ocitocina foi medida no líquor. Na terceira parte deste trabalho, ratos adultos foram expostos a tarefas de memória (Reconhecimento de Objetos e ao Labirinto Aquático de Morris). O Comportamento Alimentar também foi analisado. Dano celular, quebras do ADN, citocinas inflamatórias e fator neurotrófico derivado do encéfalo (BDNF) foram medidos no hipocampo. A SM aumentou o Medo Condicionado ao Contexto e a atividade da Na+, K+-ATPase na amígdala. Foi encontrado um efeito significativo da SM sobre a catalase apenas em fêmeas, aumentando sua atividade. A SM reduziu os comportamentos sociais (duração de cheirar; frequências de ataques lateral e frontal; frequência e duração de boxing). Houve uma tendência dos animais SM apresentarem redução na ocitocina no líquor. Animais SM apresentaram desempenho prejudicado nos testes de Reconhecimento de Objetos e Labirinto aquático de Morris. Não houve efeito sobre o Comportamento Alimentar. Os seguintes resultados foram encontrados nas avaliações neuroquímicas: SM aumentou as quebras de ADN no hipocampo, apresentou uma tendência a diminuir o TNF-α hipocampal em ratos machos e aumentou significativamente o TNF-α hipocampal em fêmeas. Nossos resultados sugerem um papel do ambiente precoce na programação das respostas de medo, sociais e cognitivas na vida adulta, assim como em suas neuroquímicas subjacentes. Observamos que um evento aversivo no início da vida, tal como a SM, pode levar a prejuízos em parâmetros comportamentais e neuroquímicos. Encontramos uma atividade aumentada na amígdala (indicada pela Na+, K+-ATPase) causada pela SM, afetando comportamentos relacionados ao medo, com melhor desempenho na tarefa de medo condicionado em adultos, e esse efeito pode ser tarefa-específico (os efeitos sobre a memória espacial e de reconhecimento de objetos são opostos). Ademais, a SM reduziu comportamentos agressivos e sociais. Esse resultado pode ser relacionado à tendência da SM reduzir os níveis de ocitocina no líquor, a qual é um hormônio envolvido em comportamentos afiliativos e sociais. As diferenças de sexo nos comportamentos sociais estão de acordo com estudos anteriores. Os prejuízos de memória em animais SM podem ser relacionados às mudanças neuroquímicas encontradas no hipocampo, tais como índices aumentados de quebras de ADN. Ademais, nosso trabalho encontrou diferenças de sexo nas atividades neuroquímicas, tais como atividade da CAT na amígdala em fêmeas SM e um efeito contrário entre machos e fêmeas SM nos níveis de TNF-α. Esses achados demonstram que um estresse no início da vida pode levar a efeitos neuroquímicos sexo-específicos. / A large body of evidences indicates that exposure to early adverse life events such as childhood neglect and abuse can increase vulnerability to psychopathology in adult life. It has been reported that psychopathologies may lead not only to cognitive, emotional and social impairments, but also to a variety of neurochemical alterations. Periodic neonatal maternal separation (MS) in the rat has been used as a rodent model of the effects of early adverse life events on adult physiology and behavior. The first two weeks of life are a critical period for neural development in rats. The purpose of the present study was to verify the long-term effects of repeated MS in different parameters, including conditioned fear, social, cognitive and feeding behaviors, as well as a series of neurochemical analysis. Female and male Wistar rats were subjected to repeated MS (incubator at 32°C, 3h/day, during postnatal days 1-10). In the first part of this work, the subjects were exposed to a Contextual Fear Conditioning task at 60 days of age, and Na+, K+ -ATPase and antioxidant enzymes activitieswere evaluated in the amygdala. In the second part of this work, the animals were exposed to 15-min Social Interaction test at 70 days of age in order to analyze social behaviors (frequencies and durations of sniffing; lateral attack; frontal attack; boxing; and time spent in non-social behavior). Oxytocin was measured in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). In the third part of the present work, adult rats were exposed to Object Recognition and Morris Water Maze memory tasks. Feeding behavior was analyzed as well. Cell damage, mitochondrial viability, DNA breaks, inflammatory cytokines, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were measured in the hippocampus. MS effects were observed, with increased Contextual Fear Conditioning and increased Na+, K+-ATPase in amygdala, without differences groups on the antioxidant enzymes activities (SOD, GPx, CAT) in male rats. Nevertheless, we found a significant MS effect in females, with an increase of CAT activity. MS decreased social behaviors (sniffing duration; frequencies of lateral and frontal attacks; frequency and duration of boxing). Two way ANOVA indicated a tendency of MS animals towards decreased CSF oxytocin levels. MS animals also shoed impairments on performances of object recognition and Morris water maze tasks, and no differences on feeding behavior. The following results were found on neurochemical assessments: MS increased DNA breaks in hippocampus; additionally, a tendency for MS decreasing hippocampal TNF-α in male rats was observed, while MS significantly increased hippocampal TNF-α in females. Our results suggest a role of early rearing environment in programming fear, social and cognitive responses in adulthood, as well as their underlying neurochemistry. We found that an aversive early-life event, such as MS, may lead to impairments in behavioral and neurochemical parameters. We found that MS increased activity in the amygdala (as indicated by the increased activity of Na+, K+-ATPase), affecting behaviors related to fear in adulthood, and this effect could be task-specific. Moreover, MS decreased aggressive and social behaviors. This result may be related to the marginally reduced CSF oxytocin levels in MS subjects, which is a hormone involved in affiliative and social behaviors. Sex differences on social behaviors are in accordance to previous studies. MS also impaired short- and long-term memories as observed on Object Recognition and Morris Water Maze tasks. These memory impairments on MS animals may be associated to neurochemical changes found in hippocampus, such as increased DNA breaks. Moreover, our work found sex differences on neurochemical activities, such as amygdalar CAT activity in MS females and an opposing effect of hippocampal TNF-α in MS females compared to males. These findings reveal that early stress may lead to sex-specific neurochemical effects.

Dissertação(mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Programa de Pós–Graduação em Aqüicultura, Instituto de Oceanografia, 2011. / Submitted by Cristiane Silva (cristiane_gomides@hotmail.com) on 2012-08-20T13:42:19Z No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertao renato a santos.pdf: 788840 bytes, checksum: d822bbd2dd77094d946ed0d5d725098d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Bruna Vieira(bruninha_vieira@ibest.com.br) on 2012-11-13T22:09:12Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertao renato a santos.pdf: 788840 bytes, checksum: d822bbd2dd77094d946ed0d5d725098d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2012-11-13T22:09:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertao renato a santos.pdf: 788840 bytes, checksum: d822bbd2dd77094d946ed0d5d725098d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Organismos marinhos em salinidades reduzidas encontram um desafio fisiológico diferente daquele naturalmente encontrado em salinidade oceânica. Isso ocorre porque esses se tornam hiper-osmóticos em relação ao meio. A literatura sugere que a adição de sal na dieta pode suprir a perda passaiva de íons e, consequentemente, melhorar o crescimento. Dessa forma, os efeitos da suplementação de sal na dieta (SD) no crescimento, na sobrevivência, na osmorregulação e nas alterações histológicas branquiais foram avaliados em juvenis de bijupirá (12 g) criados em salinidade 5. O bijupirá, Rachycentron canadum, tem recebido a atenção de pesquisadores e investidores no mundo inteiro devido às suas características positivas que a elegem uma espécie com potencial na piscicultura marinha. Durante 40 dias, os peixes foram alimentados, diariamente em dois turnos, com dietas contendo diferentes níveis de NaCl: 0,0; 2,5; 5,0; 7,5 e 10,0% do peso seco da dieta basal (todos em triplicata). Ao final do experimento os arcos branquiais foram coletados para avaliação histológica e determinação da atividade Na+, K+-ATPase. A sobrevivência foi 100% em todos os grupos e não houve diferença no peso médio final entre os tratamentos. Entretanto, 7,5 e 10% de NaCl resultaram em piores taxas de conversão alimentar e maior consumo alimentar comparadas aos demais grupos. A atividade da Na+, K+-ATPase branquial foi estatisticamente reduzida quando os peixes receberam dietas com níveis de 2,5; 5 e 7,5% de NaCl em relação ao grupo 0,0%. O número de células de cloreto do grupo controle (16 células mm-2) diferiu significativamente dos grupos SD. Foi verificado o aumento da proliferação celular de acordo com o aumento do sal na dieta, atingindo 41 células mm-2 nas brânquias dos peixes do grupo 10% de NaCl. Esses dados sugerem que a suplementação de NaCl não é necessária para o crescimento em salinidade 5, apesar do bijupirá apresentar menor atividade Na+, K+-ATPase nos grupos com baixa adição de NaCl na dieta. / Marine fish in low-saline water encounter the physiological challenge of passive loss of ions and water gain. Some studies suggested that dietary salt can provide physiological necessities and may, consequently, improve growth. Cobia Rachycentron canadum is a fast growing fish and its commercial interest has been increasing around the world. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of salty diet (SD) on growth performance, gill histological alterations, and osmoregulation of cobia reared in low salinity. Cobia juveniles (12 g) were acclimated to salinity 5 and fed with five dietary NaCl levels: 0.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5% and 10.0% dry weight of a basal diet (all with three replicates). Fishes were fed twice daily until satiation for 40 days. At the end of experiment, gill arches were sampled for histological evaluation and for determination of Na+, K+-ATPase activity. Survival after 40 days was 100% in all treatments. The results showed that NaCl supplementation did not improve growth performance and the highest levels of SD (7.5 and 10%) showed unfavorable effects on food conversion and feed intake. Na+, K+-ATPase activity in fishes fed with the basal diet was significantly higher than in those fed with 2.5%, 5.0 and 7.0% NaCl supplementation. The number of chloride cells significantly increased with increasing dietary salt level, reaching 2.5 fold higher in 10% NaCl supplementation (41 cells mm-2) when compared to group 0.0% (16 cells mm-2). Summarily, dietary salt supplemented has consequences on chloride cells proliferation, but, apparently, cobia seems to spare energy, since it reduced the Na+, K+-ATPase activity.

Abstract Chronic overload of the heart is the major cause of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and eventually heart failure. It is generally accepted that autocrine/paracrine factors, such as angiotensin II (Ang II) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) contribute to the development of LVH. Cardiac hypertrophy and failure are characterized by attenuated responsiveness to β- adrenergic stimulation and accumulation of collagenous material to the left ventricular wall. The present study aimed to characterize the roles of ET-1 and Ang II in the regulation of cardiac function. The role of the plasmamembrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA) in ET-1 induced cardiac responses and the role of type XV collagen in cardiac function were also studied. Both ET-1 infusion and mechanical loading were able to induce positive inotropic effect and induction of early response genes in isolated perfused hearts. ET-1 also induced strong vasoconstriction. Cardiomyocyte-specific PMCA overexpression inhibited the ET-1 induced hypertrophic response, while inotropic response remained unaltered. ET-1 was found to induce release of adrenomedullin (AM), a potent vasorelaxing and inotropic peptide. Infusion of AM antagonized the vasoconstrictive effect of ET-1 independently of nitric oxide. In hypertrophied rat hearts ET-1 was found to contribute significantly to the Frank-Starling response, a fundamental mechanism regulating contractile performance of the heart. In mice hearts, ET-1 was found to play a dual role in load induced elevation of contractile strength: ETA receptors mediated an increase, while ETB receptors mediated an inhibitory effect on contrcatile force. Ang II was not contributing to the contractile response to load in either rat or mice hearts. Blunted response to β-adrenergic stimulus and increased vulnerability as a result of exercise was observed in mice lacking collagen XV. In conclusion, the present results underscore the importance of the local factors, especially ET-1, in regulation of cardiac function, not only in terms of hypertrophic but also in terms of contractile response to load. The results also suggest a role for PMCA in regulation of cardiac function. Lack of type XV collagen was found to result in cardiac dysfunction with many features similar to those of early heart failure.

Muitas evidências indicam que exposições a eventos adversos no início da vida, tais como abuso e negligência, aumentam a vulnerabilidade a psicopatologias na vida adulta. Tem sido relatado que psicopatologias podem levar a não apenas prejuízos cognitivos, emocionais e sociais, mas também a uma variedade de alterações neuroquímicas. Separações maternas periódicas no período neonatal têm sido usadas como um modelo animal de eventos adversos no início da vida, avaliando-se seus efeitos sobre aspectos comportamentais e fisiológicos observados na vida adulta. As primeiras duas semanas de vida representam um período crítico para o desenvolvimento neural em ratos. Sabe-se que períodos prolongados de separação materna (SM) podem modificar parâmetros neurobiológicos e comportamentais. Logo, o objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar os efeitos duradouros de SM repetida em diferentes parâmetros, incluindo comportamentos de medo, sociais, cognitivos e alimentar, assim como uma série de análises neuroquímicas. Ratos Wistar machos e fêmeas foram sujeitos a SM repetidas (incubadora a 32°C, 3h/dia) nos dia 1 ao 10 de vida. Na primeira parte deste trabalho, os animais foram expostos à tarefa de Medo Condicionado ao Contexto aos 60 dias de idade. Uma semana após, as atividades da Na+, K+-ATPase e de enzimas antioxidantes foram medidas na amígdala. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, os animais foram expostos ao teste de Interação Social por 15 min aos 70 dias de idade. Foram observadas as frequências e durações dos seguintes comportamentos: cheirar; ataque lateral; ataque frontal; boxing; e tempo gasto sem demonstrar comportamentos sociais. A ocitocina foi medida no líquor. Na terceira parte deste trabalho, ratos adultos foram expostos a tarefas de memória (Reconhecimento de Objetos e ao Labirinto Aquático de Morris). O Comportamento Alimentar também foi analisado. Dano celular, quebras do ADN, citocinas inflamatórias e fator neurotrófico derivado do encéfalo (BDNF) foram medidos no hipocampo. A SM aumentou o Medo Condicionado ao Contexto e a atividade da Na+, K+-ATPase na amígdala. Foi encontrado um efeito significativo da SM sobre a catalase apenas em fêmeas, aumentando sua atividade. A SM reduziu os comportamentos sociais (duração de cheirar; frequências de ataques lateral e frontal; frequência e duração de boxing). Houve uma tendência dos animais SM apresentarem redução na ocitocina no líquor. Animais SM apresentaram desempenho prejudicado nos testes de Reconhecimento de Objetos e Labirinto aquático de Morris. Não houve efeito sobre o Comportamento Alimentar. Os seguintes resultados foram encontrados nas avaliações neuroquímicas: SM aumentou as quebras de ADN no hipocampo, apresentou uma tendência a diminuir o TNF-α hipocampal em ratos machos e aumentou significativamente o TNF-α hipocampal em fêmeas. Nossos resultados sugerem um papel do ambiente precoce na programação das respostas de medo, sociais e cognitivas na vida adulta, assim como em suas neuroquímicas subjacentes. Observamos que um evento aversivo no início da vida, tal como a SM, pode levar a prejuízos em parâmetros comportamentais e neuroquímicos. Encontramos uma atividade aumentada na amígdala (indicada pela Na+, K+-ATPase) causada pela SM, afetando comportamentos relacionados ao medo, com melhor desempenho na tarefa de medo condicionado em adultos, e esse efeito pode ser tarefa-específico (os efeitos sobre a memória espacial e de reconhecimento de objetos são opostos). Ademais, a SM reduziu comportamentos agressivos e sociais. Esse resultado pode ser relacionado à tendência da SM reduzir os níveis de ocitocina no líquor, a qual é um hormônio envolvido em comportamentos afiliativos e sociais. As diferenças de sexo nos comportamentos sociais estão de acordo com estudos anteriores. Os prejuízos de memória em animais SM podem ser relacionados às mudanças neuroquímicas encontradas no hipocampo, tais como índices aumentados de quebras de ADN. Ademais, nosso trabalho encontrou diferenças de sexo nas atividades neuroquímicas, tais como atividade da CAT na amígdala em fêmeas SM e um efeito contrário entre machos e fêmeas SM nos níveis de TNF-α. Esses achados demonstram que um estresse no início da vida pode levar a efeitos neuroquímicos sexo-específicos. / A large body of evidences indicates that exposure to early adverse life events such as childhood neglect and abuse can increase vulnerability to psychopathology in adult life. It has been reported that psychopathologies may lead not only to cognitive, emotional and social impairments, but also to a variety of neurochemical alterations. Periodic neonatal maternal separation (MS) in the rat has been used as a rodent model of the effects of early adverse life events on adult physiology and behavior. The first two weeks of life are a critical period for neural development in rats. The purpose of the present study was to verify the long-term effects of repeated MS in different parameters, including conditioned fear, social, cognitive and feeding behaviors, as well as a series of neurochemical analysis. Female and male Wistar rats were subjected to repeated MS (incubator at 32°C, 3h/day, during postnatal days 1-10). In the first part of this work, the subjects were exposed to a Contextual Fear Conditioning task at 60 days of age, and Na+, K+ -ATPase and antioxidant enzymes activitieswere evaluated in the amygdala. In the second part of this work, the animals were exposed to 15-min Social Interaction test at 70 days of age in order to analyze social behaviors (frequencies and durations of sniffing; lateral attack; frontal attack; boxing; and time spent in non-social behavior). Oxytocin was measured in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). In the third part of the present work, adult rats were exposed to Object Recognition and Morris Water Maze memory tasks. Feeding behavior was analyzed as well. Cell damage, mitochondrial viability, DNA breaks, inflammatory cytokines, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were measured in the hippocampus. MS effects were observed, with increased Contextual Fear Conditioning and increased Na+, K+-ATPase in amygdala, without differences groups on the antioxidant enzymes activities (SOD, GPx, CAT) in male rats. Nevertheless, we found a significant MS effect in females, with an increase of CAT activity. MS decreased social behaviors (sniffing duration; frequencies of lateral and frontal attacks; frequency and duration of boxing). Two way ANOVA indicated a tendency of MS animals towards decreased CSF oxytocin levels. MS animals also shoed impairments on performances of object recognition and Morris water maze tasks, and no differences on feeding behavior. The following results were found on neurochemical assessments: MS increased DNA breaks in hippocampus; additionally, a tendency for MS decreasing hippocampal TNF-α in male rats was observed, while MS significantly increased hippocampal TNF-α in females. Our results suggest a role of early rearing environment in programming fear, social and cognitive responses in adulthood, as well as their underlying neurochemistry. We found that an aversive early-life event, such as MS, may lead to impairments in behavioral and neurochemical parameters. We found that MS increased activity in the amygdala (as indicated by the increased activity of Na+, K+-ATPase), affecting behaviors related to fear in adulthood, and this effect could be task-specific. Moreover, MS decreased aggressive and social behaviors. This result may be related to the marginally reduced CSF oxytocin levels in MS subjects, which is a hormone involved in affiliative and social behaviors. Sex differences on social behaviors are in accordance to previous studies. MS also impaired short- and long-term memories as observed on Object Recognition and Morris Water Maze tasks. These memory impairments on MS animals may be associated to neurochemical changes found in hippocampus, such as increased DNA breaks. Moreover, our work found sex differences on neurochemical activities, such as amygdalar CAT activity in MS females and an opposing effect of hippocampal TNF-α in MS females compared to males. These findings reveal that early stress may lead to sex-specific neurochemical effects.

Heart failure is a debilitating condition in which the heart cannot meet the metabolic demands of the body. Chronic β-adrenergic (β-AR) stimulation causes pathological myocardial remodeling that leads to heart failure, in part, by promoting apoptosis of cardiac myocytes. Work from our laboratory has shown that β-AR stimulated apoptosis is dependent on reactive oxygen species (ROS), but the molecular targets by which ROS mediate apoptosis is not known. One target of ROS that may contribute to activating the apoptosis pathway is the sarco-endoplasmic reticulum ATPase (SERCA2). SERCA2 is responsible for moving the large majority of intracellular calcium in the cardiac myocyte. We have identified that SERCA2 can undergo oxidative post-translational modification (OPTM) of cysteine C674: Low ROS increase activity while high ROS decreases. Since SERCA is the primary calcium transporter and is located in close proximity of the mitochondria, it is possible SERCA activity may affect the level of calcium in mitochondria, which in excess is a known activator of the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Progressive loss of myocardial cells in ischemia and heart failure likely contributes to the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy. We hypothesized that oxidation of SERCA2 at C674 increases mitochondrial calcium, thereby activating the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. To address this thesis, we used a novel redox-insensitive SERCA2 mutation in which C674 is replaced by serine (C674S) to determine the role of oxidative inhibition of SERCA in H2O2-stimulated apoptosis in vitro. We tested our hypothesis using adult rat ventricular myocytes (ARVM) that overexpress wild type or SERCA C674 and assessed intra-organelle calcium content, mitochondrial function and activation of the apoptosis pathway. To measure mitochondrial calcium, we optimized the use of an ultrasensitive genetically-encoded calcium indicator (GECI) targeted to the mitochondria which was expressed in ARVM via adenovirus infection. Redox-insensitive SERCA C674S expressing ARVM displayed less sensitivity to H2O2-stimulated mitochondrial calcium uptake which was confirmed by measuring calcium sensitive pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphorylation status. Furthermore, SERCA C674S ARVM were protected from H2O2 -mediated apoptosis, indicated by a reduction in cytochrome c release and annexin V staining. Lastly, H2O2 treatment decreased the cytosolic ATP/ADP ratio and depolarized the mitochondrial membrane potential, however this was independent of SERCA C674 oxidation. Taken together, these experiments elucidate a novel role for SERCA2 activity in cardiac myocytes and provide a potential therapeutic target for reducing cardiac myocyte apoptosis, potentially improving cardiac function during heart failure.

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