This thesis focuses on the development of Gestalt guidelines to assist parents to enhance psychosocial development in middle childhood. The researcher made use of the four stages of the intervention research process, namely project planning, information gathering, design, and early development of the guidelines to complete this research study. For the purposes of this study middle childhood is defined as male and female children between the age of seven and twelve years. Some areas of psychosocial development and relevant Gestalt principles are highlighted in this study. Functional elements of existing parenting programs are discussed and utilised along with the views of the respondents in this study, those of experts, and literature reviews to design Gestalt guidelines with an observational system. / Social Work / M.Diac.

The focus of this study was to investigate psychological effect on grandchildren when they are being raised by their grandparents. Considerable research has been done on the psychological effect on the grandparents, but very little on the effects on grandchildren, especially in South Africa. By means of a mainly qualitative investigation, empirical data were collected through informal discussions, observations and projection media from four families and seven grandchildren in total. The findings yielded a number of common themes among all the grandchildren, and yet others showed the influence of the attitude of the grandparents towards the situation. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Guidance and counseling)

Social learning has given us insight into how children learn actions from others across different domains (e.g., actions on objects, pretend play, and tool use). However, little research exists to confirm whether young children can generate their own novel actions. Three different settings were chosen to offer a varied investigation of children’s ability to generate novel actions: generating multiple actions with novel objects; generating iconic gestures in order to communicate; and generating pretend actions using object substitution. Generating multiple actions with novel objects: The Unusual Box test was developed to investigate children’s ability to generate multiple actions with novel objects (Chapter 2). The Unusual Box test involves children playing with a wooden box that contains many different features (e.g., rings, stairs, strings), and five novel objects. The number of different actions performed on the box and with the objects (i.e., fluency) was used as a measure of their individual learning. Positive correlations between the fluency scores of 24 3- and 4-year-olds on the Unusual Box test and two existing measures of divergent thinking were found. Divergent thinking relates to the ability to think of multiple answers based on one premise. Furthermore, a large range of fluency scores indicated individual differences in children’s ability to generate multiple actions with novel objects. In addition, 16 2-year-olds were assessed on the Unusual Box test, twice two weeks apart, to investigate test-retest reliability and the possibility that the Unusual Box test could be used with children younger than 3 years. A strong positive correlation between the scores on the two assessments showed high test-retest reliability, while individual differences in fluency scores and the absence of a floor effect indicated that the Unusual Box test was usable in children from 2 years of age. Generating iconic gestures in order to communicate: Children’s ability to generate iconic gestures in order to communicate was assessed using a game to request stickers from an experimenter (N = 20, Chapter 3). In order to get a sticker children had to communicate to the experimenter which out of two objects they wanted (only one object had a sticker attached to it). Children’s use of speech or pointing was ineffective; therefore only generating an iconic gesture was sufficient to retrieve the sticker. Children generated a correct iconic gesture on 71% of the trials. These findings indicate that children generate their own iconic gestures in order to communicate; and that they understand the representational nature of iconic gestures, and use this in their own generation of iconic gestures. Generating pretend actions using object substitution: In order to determine whether children are able to generate their own object substitution actions and understand the representational nature of these actions, 45 3- and 4-year-olds were familiarized with the goal of a task through modelling actions. Children distinguished between the intentions of an experimenter to pretend, or try and perform a correct action. Children mainly imitated the pretend actions, while correcting the trying actions. Next, children were presented with objects for which they had to generate their own object substitution actions without being shown a model. When children had previously been shown pretend actions, children generated their own object substitution actions. This indicates that children generate their own object substitution actions, and that they understand the representational nature of these actions. An additional study with 34 3-year-olds, revealed no significant correlations between divergent thinking, inhibitory control, or children’s object substitution in a free play setting, and children’s ability to generate object substitution actions in the experimental setting.

Les changements sociaux mettent aujourd’hui en question les identités individuelles et collectives, le rapport à soi-même et aux autres. À partir d’une méthodologie croisée, ce travail interroge la construction de l’identité en fonction du lien social, en comparant les dessins d’enfants québécois et ivoiriens (méthode projective de quatre dessins : libre, bonhomme, famille, famille idéale). Huit études de cas, de même qu’une comparaison statistique avec des données internationales (France, Russie, Vietnam), mettent en lumière des différences culturelles. La primauté de la représentation de soi-même, spécifique au Québec, et l’absence du sujet dans le dessin, particulière à la Côte d’Ivoire, font l’objet d’un examen particulier. Le dessin témoignant des identifications à l’interface subjective et sociale, la synthèse des résultats révèle la possibilité d’un lien entre le sujet solipsiste moderne et une organisation identificatoire privilégiant des figures du Même ou du semblable, qui implique des aspects régressifs. L’identification (secondaire) à des figures de l’Autre, nécessaire à la construction d’idéaux et d’une identité qui puisse se projeter dans l’avenir, paraît facilitée dans un lien social où une tradition symbolique fonctionne. De manière générale, l’identité est à penser comme un équilibre entre mêmeté et altérité, dont le lien social viendra faire varier la configuration. / Today, social changes question individual and collective identities, or the sense we have of our selves and our relation to others. Based on a crossed methodology, this thesis thinks the problem of identity construction depending on the social link, by comparing the drawings of children from Quebec and Ivory Cost (four drawings projective method: free drawing, human figure, family and ideal family). Eight cases studies, and a statistical comparison with international data (France, Russia, Vietnam), bring to light cultural differences. Priority of self-representation,specific to Quebec, and the subject’s absence in the drawing, particular to Ivory Cost, are studied more precisely. Since drawings testify of identifications at the subjective and social junction, the results synthesis reveals the possibility of a relation between the modern solipsist subject and identification to Same figures, or similar figures, involving regressive aspects. Identification (secondary identification) to Other figures, necessary for the construction of ideals and for an identity that can be projected in the future, seems facilitated in a social link where a symbolic tradition works. In general, we can think identity as an equilibrium between sameness and otherness,witch is influenced by the social link.

Les élèves des écoles maternelles et élémentaires sont évalués. En cas de suspicion de troubles des apprentissages, ils sont adressés dans une unité d'évaluations pour une expertise médicalisée. Cette recherche porte sur la manière dont ce dispositif a pris place dans celui de l'école dans le but de traiter ces éventuels troubles des apprentissages. Car, ces enfants semblent enlisés dans des procédés d'apprentissages repérables chez des enfants de maternelle et de cours préparatoire. Les apports de la psychologie du développement nous permettent de les décrire, mais ne nous éclairent pas sur l'articulation entre les développements cognitif et affectif. C'est donc au regard des apports de la psychopathologie clinique et de la psychanalyse, en nous appuyant sur des études de cas, que nous traitons de ces problématiques interférant sur les apprentissages scolaires. À partir de là nous interrogeons la pertinence du dispositif médical pour le traitement de la difficulté scolaire. / The pupils of preschool and elementary school are estimated. In case of suspicion of possible leaming disorders they are sent in a unit of evaluation for a medical expertise. This research suggests examining how the medical device has come in that of the school to detect at thepupil's of possible leaming disorders and treat them. Yet these children seem to stay in processes of leaming which are the ones of children of preschool and first year of elementary school. The contributions theories of cognitive development allow us to describe them, but does not enlight us about the articulation between the cognitive and emotional development. lt is therefore, based on the contributions of the clinical psychopathology and the psychoanalysis, based on several case studies, that we treat problems susceptible to interfere on the school leaming. From there we question the relevance of the medical device for the treatment of the school difficulty.

La mémoire de travail est un composant essentiel de la pensée qui est fortement impliquée dans les apprentissages et la réussite scolaires. Pourtant, elle est rarement étudiée chez l’enfant d’âge préscolaire, du fait notamment d’un manque de paradigmes adaptés. Cette thèse visait donc à étudier le fonctionnement de la mémoire de travail chez cette population, soit entre 2 et 6 ans. Pour cela, deux paradigmes originaux ont été utilisés. Ils ont été conçus pour être proches de situations de jeux, propices à aider le jeune enfant à focaliser son attention sur la tâche. Ainsi, il a tout d’abord été montré que les performances de rappel diminuaient au fil du temps, et ce, même en l’absence de tâche interférente. Les enfants de cette tranche d’âge opèrent donc un maintien passif de l’information, i.e. sans mise en œuvre spontanée de stratégie de maintien de l’information. De plus, le déclin de l’information était similaire au travers de l’âge. Pour la première fois, il a donc été mis en évidence que la vitesse d’oubli de l’information ne variait pas entre 2 et 6 ans. Finalement, aucun de ces deux facteurs, i.e. mise en œuvre de stratégie de maintien de l’information et modification de la vitesse d’oubli de l’information, ne peut être avancé pour expliquer l’augmentation des capacités mémorielles entre 2 et 6 ans. Ensuite, il a été montré que les caractéristiques intrinsèques de la tâche pouvaient conduire à une amélioration des performances de rappel, peut-être par la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie de maintien. Notamment, la réalisation d’une activité motrice, i.e. marche durant le délai de rétention, a permis à ces jeunes enfants de contrecarrer dans une certaine mesure l’oubli temporel de l’information. La mise en œuvre d’une activité motrice, en dirigeant l’attention du jeune enfant vers un indice visuel du but à atteindre, aiderait celui-ci à maintenir le but de la tâche en mémoire. Les ressources attentionnelles ainsi dégagées pourraient être mises au service d’une amélioration des performances de rappel, peut-être par la mise en œuvre d’une stratégie de maintien. / Working memory is an essential component of thought that is highly involved in learning and academic achievement. However, it is rarely studied in preschoolers, mainly because of a lack of suitable paradigms. Therefore, this thesis investigated the functioning of working memory in children between 2 and 6 years. For this purpose, two original paradigms were used. They were designed to be close to game situations which should help young children to focus their attention on the task. Firstly it was shown that the recall performance decreased over time, even in the absence of an interfering task. Children of this age therefore use a passive maintenance, i.e. without spontaneously implementing any strategy of maintenance. Furthermore, the decline of the information was similar through age. For the first time, it has been demonstrated that the rate of information forgetting did not vary between 2 and 6. Finally, none of these two factors, i.e. implementation of a strategy of maintenance and change in the speed of forgetting can explain the increase in memory capacity between 2 and 6 years of age. Secondly, it has been shown that the intrinsic characteristics of the task could lead to improved recall performance, perhaps by inducing a strategy of maintenance. Particularly, the implementation of a motor activity, i.e. walking during the retention period, has enabled these young children to counteract to some extent the temporal decay of information. Then, the implementation of a motor activity, by directing the attention of young children to a visual cue related to the goal of the task, help them to maintain in memory the purpose of the task. Attentional resources could be harnessed to improve performance of recall, perhaps by implementing a retention strategy.

This thesis focuses on the development of Gestalt guidelines to assist parents to enhance psychosocial development in middle childhood. The researcher made use of the four stages of the intervention research process, namely project planning, information gathering, design, and early development of the guidelines to complete this research study. For the purposes of this study middle childhood is defined as male and female children between the age of seven and twelve years. Some areas of psychosocial development and relevant Gestalt principles are highlighted in this study. Functional elements of existing parenting programs are discussed and utilised along with the views of the respondents in this study, those of experts, and literature reviews to design Gestalt guidelines with an observational system. / Social Work / M.Diac.

Ce travail soutient une conception non déficitaire de l’autisme. Il s’intéresse au traitement du sujet autiste, à son accompagnement et son évolution subjective. Il développe une prise en charge des autistes centrée sur leur fonctionnement spécifique et leur singularité. Il fait l’hypothèse d’un sujet au travail dans l’autisme, qui cherche désespérément à réfréner ce qui l’envahit, à tempérer son angoisse, et à symboliser son monde. Notre lecture lacanienne des principales approches de l’autisme (psychodynamiques, comportementales, cognitives) permet de dégager les conditions et modalités de traitement qui favorisent la relance du sujet autiste dans la dynamique du langage, son ouverture à autrui, à la connaissance, et au lien social. Cette évolution passe par l’élaboration d’un « symptôme autistique ». Nous montrons la fonction thérapeutique essentielle des différents moyens de compensation (ou « bases de suppléances ») à la carence symbolique, mis en oeuvre par le sujet autiste. Et précisons la fonction et le rôle déterminant du thérapeute au cours du traitement. Enfin, nous dégageons une clinique différentielle entre autisme et psychose. / This work supports an approach of autism as non deficient. It focuses on treatment, support and subjective evolution of the autistic subject. It develops a care centered on specificity and singularity of this subject. It makes the hypothesis that there is a subject working his way through in autism, desperately trying to stop what invades him, to moderate his anxiety, to symbolize his world. Our lacanian reading of the major approaches to autism (psychoanalytical, behaviorism, cognitivism) allows to develop the conditions and methods of a treatment that helps the autistic subject to re-start in the dynamics of language, stimulates his opening in others, in knowledge, and in social links. This evolution requires the elaboration of an « autistic symptom ». We underline the essential therapeutic function of various means of compensation (or « suppletion basis ») for the symbolic deficiency used by the autistic subject. And we specify the function and determining role of the therapist during the treatment. Finally, we define a differential clinical approach between autism and psychosis.

The focus of this study was to investigate psychological effect on grandchildren when they are being raised by their grandparents. Considerable research has been done on the psychological effect on the grandparents, but very little on the effects on grandchildren, especially in South Africa. By means of a mainly qualitative investigation, empirical data were collected through informal discussions, observations and projection media from four families and seven grandchildren in total. The findings yielded a number of common themes among all the grandchildren, and yet others showed the influence of the attitude of the grandparents towards the situation. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Guidance and counseling)

Notre étude explore des réactions du bébé vivant en pouponnière à la visite parentale. Cette étude s'inscrit dans la continuité des études sur les effets de la carence de soins et de la séparation. Objectifs : savoir comment le bébé réagit à la visite de ses parents, si tous les bébés ont le même bénéfice à recevoir la visite de leurs parents, et quels sont les facteurs impliqués dans la réaction du bébé. Méthode : étude de la réaction d'un groupe de 15 bébés vivant en pouponnière (2-36 mois) à la visite de leurs parents sur 24 heures par un protocole de test-re-test du comportement de retrait relationnel (ADBB 5 fois), de la concentration de cortisol salivaire (8 fois),d'un indice de comportement difficile le jour et la nuit avant et après la visite. Ces variables ont été étudiées en lien avec les caractéristiques de l'enfant(âge, développement, genre, rang dans la fratrie), de l'interaction parents-enfants(sensibilité, synchronie dyadique), les caractéristiques de la visite (fréquence, durée), du placement (durée, raison, âge au moment du placement), ainsi que les caractéristiques parentales(âge, dépression, anxiété, sensibilité à l'évaluation, santé mentale, soutien social, traumatismes, représentations d'attachement). Résultats : Trois types de profils de bébés ont pu être mis en évidence en fonction de leurs réactions à la visite parentale : - celui des bébés qui réagissent bien au contact de leurs parents et qui souffrent à la séparation au retour de la visite. Ces bébés ont un meilleur développement, leurs parents sont plus sensibles que ceux des autres groupes et ils bénéficient des visites. Leur niveau de cortisol baisse à la visite et remonte à la séparation. -des bébés qui réagissent par davantage de retrait relationnel au contact de leurs parents : Ces bébés ne montrent pas de détresse à la séparation. Ils apparaissent mieux adaptés à la vie dans l'institution (moins de retrait relationnel). Leurs parents sont beaucoup moins sensibles que ceux des autres. Leur niveau de cortisol est élevé globalement et pendant la visite. Ces bébés sont placés plus tôt que les deux autres groupes. -les bébés qui ne montrent aucune réaction au contact avec leurs parents en termes de retrait relationnel. Ils ont des niveaux de cortisol salivaire les plus bas. Ils ne se distinguent pas particulièrement des autres pour ce qui concerne les autres caractéristiques évaluées hors la durée de visite. Ce groupe apparaît à risque psychopathologique puisqu' il montre un niveau constant et élevé de retrait relationnel associé à des niveaux plus bas de cortisol salivaire et la moindre réactivité de l'axe HPA. La recherche a aussi permis de mettre en évidence l'effet de différentes variables sur les réactions du bébé à la visite parentale. Les plus importantes semblent être la qualité des interactions parents-enfants, le développement des enfants, les caractéristiques du placement et de la visite. Différents effets ont pu être mis en évidence : -un effet de deuil au retour de la visite pour les enfants qui ont eu un bon contact avec leurs parents. -un effet d'anticipation du stress de la visite pour les bébés qui réagissent mal au contact de leurs parents. -un effet de soulagement au retour de la visite pour les bébés qui réagissent mal au contact de leurs parents. -un effet de contamination pour certains enfants le lendemain de la visite, tous appartenant au groupe des enfants qui réagissent mal au contact de leurs parents. -un effet positif de la visite pour les enfants qui réagissent bien en contact de leurs parents. L'ensemble des résultats est discuté par rapport à la littérature, aux implications de théorique et juridique de l'étude du maintien du contact pour les bébés séparés de leurs parents, ainsi que les applications en termes de recherche et de clinique. / Our research is an exploratory study of the reactions of the baby living in residential nursery to parental contact. This study is in continuaty with studies on the effects of early infant neglect and separation. Objectives: explore how babies react to parental contact if all babies have the same benefit to receive visits from their parents, and what are the factors involved in the baby's reaction to parental contact. Method: study of the reaction of a group of 15 infants/babies living in a residential nursery (2-36 months) to contact with their parents on a 24 hours test-re-test protocol evaluating relational withdrawal (ADBB 5 times) , salivary cortisol concentrations (8 times), index of difficult behaviour the day and the night before and after the visit. These variables have been studied in connection with the child's characteristics (age, development, gender, birth order), and those of the parent-child interaction (sensitivity, dyadic synchrony), of the visit (frequency, duration), of the placement (time, reason, age at placement), as well as with parental characteristics (age, depression, anxiety, sensitivity to evaluation, mental health, social support, traumatic experiences, attachment representations). Results: babies do react to parental contact. Three types of reactions have been identified: - babies who respond well to contact with their parents and suffer from separation. These babies have a better development, their parents are more sensitive than those of other groups and they enjoy the visits. Their cortisol levels drop to visit and rise back at separation. - Babies who react by more relational withdrawal in contact with their parents: these babies show no distress at separation. They appear better adapted to life in the institution (less relational withdrawal). Their parents are much less sensitive than the others. Their cortisol levels are generally high even during the visit. These babies are placed sooner than the other two groups. -Babies who show no reaction to contact with their parents in terms of relational withdrawal. They have generally lower concentrations of cortisol. They cannot be particularly distinguished from the other with regard of all characteristics that have been evaluated. This group appears at psychopathological risk since it shows a consistently high level of relational withdrawal associated with lower levels of salivary cortisol and lower reactivity of the HPA axis. The research also highlighted the effect of different variables on the baby's reactions to parental visit. The most important ones seem to be the quality of parent-child interaction, child development, and the characteristics of the placement and the visit. Various effects have been highlighted: - grief effect when returning from visit for children who have had good contact with their parents. - An anticipatory effect of stress of the visit for babies who react badly to contact with their parents. - A relief effect returning from visit for babies that react poorly to contact with their parents. - A contamination effect for some children the day after the visit, those babies belonging to the group of children who respond poorly to contact with their parents. - A positive effect of the visit for children who respond well in contact with parents. Results are discussed in relation to literature, and in terms forensic implications and of clinical and research applications of maintaining contact between babies and parents separated by placement in the field of child protection.