In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die prädiktive und reaktive Anpassungsfähigkeit älterer Personen auf unerwartete Gangstörungen untersucht. Direkt nach der ersten unerwarteten Störung zeigten junge und ältere Personen eine ähnliche Erhöhung ihrer dynamischen Stabilität im folgenden Gangversuch zum Zeitpunkt kurz vor der erwarteten Gangstörung im Vergleich zu normalem Gang. Ältere Personen können also ihre Fähigkeit zur schnellen prädiktiven Anpassung der dynamischen Stabilität als Reaktion auf Gangstörungen beibehalten. Wiederholte unerwartete Gangstörungen wurden ebenfalls bei beiden Altersgruppen mit einem verbesserten Stabilitätszustand bewältigt. Ältere Personen zeigten allerdings tendenziell eine geringere reaktive Adaptation verglichen mit den jüngeren. Mittels einer Interventionsstudie wurde weiter untersucht, ob ältere Personen lernen können, auf Stabilitätsstörungen besser zu reagieren. Zwei Trainingsgruppen (ST, MT) trainierten zweimal wöchentlich für 14 Wochen und führten Übungen durch, die Mechanismen der dynamischen Stabilität enthielten. ST trainierte diese Übungen für jeweils 90min, während MT diese nur für 45min ausübte und in der verbleibenden Zeit noch Krafttraining für die unteren Extremitäten durchführte. Die Kontrollgruppe führte kein Training durch und zeigte auch keinerlei Stabilitätsveränderungen im Vergleich prä- zu post-Messung. Nach der Intervention war für ST die Stabilität nach der Gangstörung signifikant erhöht im Vergleich zum Stabilitätszustand vor der Intervention. Die Unterstützungsfläche nach der Gangstörung wurde bei beiden Interventionsgruppen als Folge der Intervention vergrößert. Signifikante Unterschiede waren hier allerdings nur bei ST zu finden. Das Üben von Mechanismen der dynamischen Stabilität kann also zu einer verbesserten Anwendung dieser Mechanismen nach einer Gangstörung führen. Zusätzliches Krafttraining zeigt allerdings keine Vorteile gegenüber dem ausschließlichen Üben von Mechanismen der dynamischen Stabilität. / This thesis aimed to gain knowledge about the preservation of predictive as well as reactive adaptability in old adults during locomotion. Young and old subjects similarly increased their dynamic stability at touchdown of the disturbed leg (prior to the perturbation) in the trial following an unexpected perturbation compared to unaffected normal gait. This suggests that older adults preserve the ability to show fast predictive adaptations in their dynamic stability in consequence to perturbations during walking. In the course of repeated unexpected perturbations, both age groups showed an increase in their dynamic stability state after the perturbation. Older adults, however, showed a tendency towards a lower reactive adaptation magnitude compared to young adults. Furthermore, by means of an intervention study, it was investigated if older adults preserve their ability to learn improved postural reactions in consequence to perturbations in general. Therefore, two training groups (ST, MT) participated for 14 weeks, twice a week, in a training program. ST practiced exercises which included mechanisms of dynamic stability for 90min and MT for 45min whereas MT further performed 45min of strength training for the lower extremities. The control group performed no training and showed no differences in the stability between pre and post measurements. Post-intervention, dynamic stability state was significantly increased for ST compared to pre-intervention after the unexpected perturbation during walking. Both intervention groups increased their base of support of the recovery step in consequence to the perturbation after the intervention, showing significant differences only in ST. It can be concluded that exercising the mechanisms of dynamic stability may lead to a better application of these mechanisms after an unexpected gait perturbation. A mixed training program, however, shows no advantages compared to the exclusive training of the mechanisms of dynamic stability.

Das Untersuchungsziel bestand in der Klärung der Bewegungsgeschwindigkeit als zusätzliche Belastungsgröße im Krafttraining und als Objektivierungsgröße der Schnellkraft- und Schnellkraftausdauerfähigkeit in der Leistungsstruktur von Ausdauersportarten am Beispiel des Ruderns. Die theoretischen Annahmen und der Untersuchungsverlauf bestätigten die Relevanz einer strikten Unterscheidung zwischen biomechanischer Meßgröße (Geschwindigkeit) und der Fähigkeit (Schnelligkeit), um trainingsmethodische Fehlschlüsse zu verhindern. Als zusätzliche Belastungsdosierungsgröße im bereits bestehenden Kennziffernsystem des Krafttrainings erwies sich die Steuerung der Bewegungsgeschwindigkeit als eine wesentliche Leistungsreserve. Mit der zusätzlichen Objektivierung und Aussteuerung der Bewegungsgeschwindigkeit im Krafttraining erreicht die Hauptbelastungskennziffer Kraft die höhere Qualität Leistung, wodurch eine Steigerung der mechanischen Leistungsabgabe bzw. der muskelmechanischen Antriebsleistung und damit der Bewegungsleistung erfolgt. Die Differenzierungen im Kraftanstiegsverhalten zyklischer Anforderungen entsprechen analog den Erscheinungen azyklischer Bewegungen wie dem Schnellkraftindex (Werchoschanski/Tatjan 1975), der Explosiv- und Approximationskraft (Schmidtbleicher 1980) oder dem Kraftgradienten, werden aber gegenwärtig nicht im Krafttraining von Ausdauersportarten objektiviert, quantifiziert oder gar direkt gesteuert bzw. trainiert. Präzisiert für das Rudern und damit relevant für die Kraftausdauersportarten insgesamt sind die Schnellkraftausdauer und die Schnellkraft als Fähigkeit zur Kraftentfaltung in den funktionell relevanten Phasen der Einzelzyklen bis zum Erreichen der Maximalgeschwindigkeit, oder allgemeiner, als qualitative Ausprägungen des Kraftanstiegverhaltens zyklischer und azyklischer Basiskraftfähigkeiten (Kraftausdauer- und Maximalkraftfähigkeit) zu definieren / The aim of this investigation was to clarify the velocity of movement as an additional parameter of the load in strength training and as a parameter of objectivity of the power ability and the power endurance ability in the performance structure of endurance events by way of example of rowing. The theoretical assumtions and the investigations affirm the relevance of a strict differentiation between biomechanic data (velocity) and the ability (speed) in order to prevent misinterpretations in the methodology of training. The control of the velocity of movement as an additional parameter of the load dosage within the existing system of data in the strength training has proven to be an essential reserve of performance. Due to the additional objectivity and control of the movement-velocity the strenght as a major parameter of load reaches a higher quality meaning power. Thus an increase of the mechanic power or of the muscle-mechanic drive and so of the power of motion is reached. The differentiations within the force-time-path of cyclic demands are in accordance with the phenomina of non-cyclic movements such as the power-index (Werchoschanski/Tatjan 1975), the explosive strenght and the approximation strenght (Schmidtbleicher 1980) or of the gradient of force. But these phenomina are not properly regarded in the strength training of endurance events. Relevant to rowing and therefore to the strength endurance events as a whole the power endurance and the power capacitys to exert a force on the functionally relevant phases of the monocycles till the point of maximum velocity, or more generally said, the qualitative shaping of the increase of force of cyclic and non-cyclic basis-strength-abilitys (strength endurance and maximum strength abilities) are to defined.

Trotz ihrer großen Bedeutung für den DDR-Sport und ihrer mächtigen Trägerbetriebe Staatssicherheit, Volkspolizei, Innenministerium und dem Amt für Zoll und Kontrolle des Warenverkehrs stellt die staatliche Sportvereinigung Dynamo bis heute ein Forschungsdesiderat dar. Obwohl Ergebnisse zu einigen speziellen Themen die Vereinigung betreffend vorliegen, wurde die wissenschaftliche Erarbeitung eines institutionshistorischen Basiswissens in Form einer allgemeinen Entwicklungsgeschichte stark vernachlässigt. Die vorliegende Studie beleuchtet die unbekannte Frühzeit der mächtigen, aggressiv-dominanten Sportorganisation und vollzieht deren Genese, Entwicklung und Etablierung in den 1950er Jahren quellengestützt nach. Im Vordergrund stehen die strukturellen Fragen, mit welchen Mitteln sich Dynamo etablierte, warum die Sportvereinigung eine privilegierte Sonderstellung einnahm und auf welche Weise sie Separatinteressen im von der SED-Führung beherrschten DDR-Sportsystem durchsetzte. Die Quellen belegen eine konspirative Gründung der Sportvereinigung Dynamo durch die Staatssicherheit im Juli 1952 und eine anschließende, nach den Anordnungen des Staatlichen Komitees für Körperkultur und Sport regelwidrige Okkupation der Sportvereinigung Deutsche Volkspolizei durch Dynamo im März 1953, die in der heutigen Forschung fälschlicherweise als Gründung der Sportvereinigung Dynamo gilt. Die Vereinigung war von Beginn an mit einer besonderen Organisationsstruktur, einem elitären Selbstverständnis und mächtigen Trägerbetrieben ausgestattet, die die Einnahme einer privilegierten Sonderstellung ermöglichten. Begünstigt wurde dies durch eine ehrgeizige Führungsriege und den politischen Interessen des Politbüros. Die Studie zeigt, dass Dynamo ein starkes Hegemoniebestreben entwickelte, und dass im Inneren eine fortwährende, zum Teil auch konspirativ umgesetzte Beherrschung der Majorität Volkspolizei durch die Minorität Staatssicherheit bestand. / In spite of the fundamental importance for the GDR-sport and in spite of the powerful “Trägerbetriebe” ”Staatssicherheit”, “Volkspolizei”, “Ministerium des Innern” and “Amt für Zoll und Kontrolle des Warenverkehrs”, the sports organisation Dynamo is not explored very well. There are research results about some special subjects, but scientifically basics in terms of a general history of development do not exist. This study examines the undocumented first years of the powerful, aggressive and dominant organisation. It sheds the light on the origin, development and establishment in the 1950s by evaluating contemporary documents. Very much emphasis is on structural questions: how could the sports organisation Dynamo establish itself? Why could it achieve such an exceptional position? And how could Dynamo implement its own interests, although the sports system in the GDR was controlled by the SED-leadership? The documents show, that the sports organisation Dynamo was found in July 1952 by the “Staatssicherheit”. They also prove a following occupation of the “Sportvereinigung Deutsche Volkspolizei” by Dynamo in March 1953. This take-over violated the orders of the “Staatliches Komitee für Körperkultur und Sport” and is spuriously known as the foundation of the sports organisation Dynamo. From its foundation Dynamo was gifted with an especial organisational structure, an elitist self-image and powerful “Trägerbetriebe” to get into a privileged and exceptional position. This development was abetted by an aspiring leadership and the political interests of the “Politbüro”. The study shows, that Dynamo developed a strong endeavour for hegemony, and it proves a constant, partly conspiratorial control of the majority “Volkspolizei” by the minority “Staatssicherheit”.

Politics has been an integral part of Korean football since the Japanese colonial era when the game became a vehicle for the Korean independence movement. The split between North and South Korea following the Korean War further accentuated the intrusion of politics into the domain of Korean football. As Koreans residing on either side of the border followed the game with intense interest and often regarded performance in international competition as a signifier of national prestige, the governments of both North and South Korea attached more importance to football than to any other sport and became its foremost patrons. In these circumstances it is not surprising to find that the relative performance of the national teams of North and South Korea mirrored changing economic and political conditions. Thus the rapid rise of North Korean football in the 1960s was a reflection of the state’s systematic and successful postwar reconstruction. Since the 1980s, however, South Korea, with its booming economy, has clearly surpassed its increasingly impoverished northern counterparts in the football field. Undoubtedly, the most two important events pertaining to the development of Korean football were the 1966 and 2002 World Cups. They provided occasions when nationalist sentiment could be expressed through football in both North and South Korea. They also provided opportunities for Korean footballers, through their achievements on the field, to show that the gap between the traditional periphery and core of world football was narrowing. At the same time, participation in competition at this level, whether by teams from North or South Korea, suggested that there was a recognizable and distinctive Korean football style nurtured in training camps where the emphasis was on producing players with sufficient stamina to run at their opponents for ninety minutes. Tireless running football has been the characteristic of successful teams from both North and South Korea. Thus, while recognizing the profound ideological differences that separate North and South Korea, this thesis also emphasizes the football tradition and culture that ethnically homogenous Koreans have in common.

Rugby refereeing requires its practitioners to possess certain qualities. MacIntyre (1981) emphasises the importance of moral goods defined with respect to a community of virtuous persons engaged in a social practice. Whereas a virtue ethics account of playing and coaching has evolved (Brown, 1990; McNamee, 1995), little philosophical work exists on the role and status of elite match officials. The significance attached to the outcome of elite sport contests provide principled and instrumental reasons as to why this particular sporting aspect requires attention. Existing sports officiating research deals primarily with psychological (Bar-Eli et al., 1995; Boyko et al., 2007; Nevill et al., 2002; Weinberg et al., 1990) and physiological issues (Castagna et al., 2007; Inácio da Silva et al., 2008; Reilly et al., 2006). This work does little to explain the role and function of elite officiating. This interpretive study aims to enhance role understanding within a MacIntyrean framework, using elite Rugby Union officiating in Wales as its particular context. It examines the extent to which elite Rugby officiating can be considered part of a social practice by investigating the elite referee’s role as an arbitrator of justice and fairness and other responsibilities that may constitute the internal goods and virtues that safeguard the game. This analysis provides principled foundations for identifying those aspects of the referee development structure that represent ‘good practice’ and those that require reform. Key findings suggest (i) that Rugby refereeing is unique within sports officiating, (ii) that officiating is an integral yet imprecisely understood part of the practice; what Morgan (2007) refers to as a social collaboration and (iii) that greater interactivity between playing, coaching and officiating would enhance the growing understanding of Welsh Rugby as a commodified product. Subsequent recommendations include implementing a holistic approach to developing the game through the creation of a Rugby triumvirate and maximising the limited resources in the referee development process through early talent identification.

The tibialis anterior (TA) muscle plays a vital role in human movement such as walking and running. Overuse of TA during these movements leads to an increased susceptibility of injuries e.g. chronic exertional compartment syndrome. TA activation has been shown to be affected by increases in exercise, age, and the external environment (i.e. incline and footwear). Because activation parameters of TA change with condition, it leads to the interpretation that force changes occur too. However,activation is only an approximate indicator of force output of a muscle. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the parameters affecting accurate measure of TA force, leading to development of a subject-specific EMG-driven model, which takes into consideration specific methodological issues. The first study investigated the reasons why the tendon excursion and geometric method differ so vastly in terms of estimation of TA moment arm. Tendon length changes during the tendon excursion method, and location of the TA line of action and irregularities between talus and foot rotations during the geometric method, were found to affect the accuracy of TA moment arm measurement. A novel, more valid, method was proposed. The second study investigated the errors associated with methods used to account for plantar flexor antagonist co-contraction. A new approach was presented and shown to be, at worse, equivalent to current methods, but allows for accounting throughout the complete range of motion. The final study utilised the outputs from studies one and two to directly measure TA force in vivo. This was used to develop, and validate, an EMG-driven TA force model. Less error was found in the accuracy of estimating TA force when the contractile component length changes were modelled using the ankle, as opposed to the muscle. Overall, these findings increase our understanding of not only the mechanics associated with TA and the ankle, but also improves our ability to accurately monitor these.

Drawing upon a series of interviews with politicians, sports administrators, coaches, journalists and academics and with analysis based on the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF), this thesis examines elite sports development policy in Taiwan within a political context. It investigates the issues of whether or not sports development and policy-making reflect institutional features, and how sports policy has changed over time in Taiwan. It further explores the development systems of baseball, taekwondo and tennis, with a particular focus on similarities and differences between them at the elite level. Empirical data gathered from semi-structured interviews and documentary materials is analysed using an institutional approach together the ACF. The main findings suggest that, in essence, sports development and policy-making in Taiwan comply with institutional features and, during different periods from 1949 to the present day, have consistently been influenced by the political needs of the time. The analysis of the development systems of the three selected sports identified some major similarities. The government promotes them using a top-down approach and each sport relies heavily on the public funding. There sports have no national level facilities. Talent identification and development mainly occur in schools and are conducted through the competition systems. There is government financial support for elite athletes to participate in international events or for the governing bodies to host international events. The development systems for coaches share the same mechanisms. Finally, national athletes in each sport can enjoy sports science support from the government during squad training and international events. However, the case studies also reveal considerable differences. The governing bodies of taekwondo and tennis play a more dominant in elite development than that of baseball. Parents play a more significant role in the identification and development of tennis players than for the other sports. Only taekwondo national competitors train relatively frequently at the national training centre. The facilities for elite baseball players are more adequate than for the other sports. Elite baseball players enjoy the most international competition opportunities and taekwondo competitors the least. The existence of a professional baseball league and a highly professionalised international competition system for tennis serve to highlight the difference between the three sports in terms of the emergence of full-time athletes. In sum, this demonstrates quite clearly that there exists in Taiwan a single spine of sports development in general, but with variations.

No description available.

This thesis contends that the contemporary phenomenon of youth football is the fruit of a variety of historical developments over the twentieth century. The manner in which the junior game evolved as an independent subset of the sport in France and America was certainly exemplary of the idiosyncrasies of national sporting culture, football in particular, the general timeline of each country as well as the place of 'youth' in wider society. The present study aims to expand the understanding of the game of football, specifically the youth sector, through a transnational line of enquiry covering the period from circa 1920 to circa 2000. The thesis structure is broadly thematic and chronological. This comparative approach attempts to remain coherent across both countries with a goal of outlining the core issues and major shifts which occurred over the chosen period. Youth football underwent a process of demarcation from the adult or elite game but maintained and furthered specific mechanisms linking the two across sporting, educational, and professional bridges. With the decade of the 1970s serving as a turning point, the youth level achieved a sort of independence while being inextricably fused to the top level. The essence of the growing separation of the youth from the senior level rested on the fundamental notion of 'age' as opposed to 'ability'. The organisation of football around this concept of 'age', and the resulting limitation of participation, provided a basis for 'junior' football as a distinct entity by the last quarter of the twentieth century. Subsequent divisions extended the differences between age categories and created a full competitive youth spectrum for younger and younger players. The game was, as a result, 'juvenilized'. The registration of players and the competitions for which this registration was so important reflected the relevance of 'age'. Throughout this process, though in different ways and at different speeds in the two countries studied, the youth game was drawn away from its roots in the school and as a pillar of the world of education. After the initial interwar and post-war eras, youth football moved toward the worlds of the club and association. This specialisation of the game was also evident in the rules and the equipment, all of which were progressively adapted for a more pedagogically correct, and perhaps commercially oriented, fit. While the youth game separated from the adult footballing world through age classification, distinct competitive spaces, adapted rules and equipment, that expanding gulf was continually bridged in various ways in order to maintain, develop, and create new links between these two increasingly distinct sectors of the sport. The link with the elite and the professional levels was certainly not new, but from the 1970s onwards it was solidified over time and the relationship grew closer as education moved farther away or, at the least, took a back seat to 'professional training'. By the close of the twentieth century, this ultimately placed the youth game as distinct from the adult game. Yet, somewhat contradictorily, it was closer than ever to the elite professional domain. As subject to international, professional and commercial forces, the youth game was fused to elite football. These three forces pulled youth football away from their uniquely national idioms and towards a more globalized arena. Harmonizing the experience across national boundaries, a blend of educational, sporting and professional bridges ensured and furthered the connection between the youth and the adult elite player. From the late nineteenth century's amateur world view - where football and sport were idealized as a means for development of the human being or the vehicle for the transmission of elite social values - the effects of professionalization turned football into an end in itself as a legitimate career. From child's play to a real métier. By the end of the twentieth century, the youth game stood confidently with one foot in each world.

This thesis aimed to enhance understanding of the nature of knowledge bases possessed by elite sports performers which underpin perceptual-cognitive and decision making skills. Two main theories were considered; Active Control of Thought (ACT*) and Representational Redescription (RR). The purpose of Study 1 was to examine the anticipatory ability of elite and non-elite players in football and hockey. The results indicated that elite players in both sports were quicker and more accurate in their expectation of pass destination. Study 2 aimed to understand the extent to which knowledge is transferable. The results indicated that elite players’ knowledge is relatively domain specific although some elements of underlying task strategy may transfer. The objective of Study 3 was to explore the means by which elite and non-elite players in football and hockey identify and differentiate between possible decisions. Results showed elite players’ rationale was based on deeper theoretical principles whilst non-experts utilised relatively superficial information and naïve theories. Study 4 focussed on problem representations of elite and non-elite football players. Results revealed elite players’ representations were more pertinent, connected and articulated in a more effective manner. Overall, the findings from the current thesis provide advanced understanding of the knowledge bases responsible for perceptual-cognitive and decision making skill, and such understanding may assist attempts to enhance athletes’ performance and support future research.