A presente pesquisa partiu de uma compreensão sociológica da crise da modernidade para refletir acerca da constituição do grupo social denominado pessoas em situação de rua na tessitura da dinâmica urbana e seus desafios para vencer essa situação de vulnerabilidade extrema. Tendo como referência o município de São Carlos/SP, caracterizamos o perfil do grupo, debruçando-nos sobre os fatores limitantes relacionados às formas de acesso e uso da água doce. Valorizamos a experiência de sofrimento social na interação precária com o território da cidade como constituinte de um conhecimento empírico relevante, o qual pode, eventualmente, subsidiar a formulação e implementação de políticas urbanas socialmente includentes. / This research started from a sociological understanding of the crisis of modernity to reflect on the constitution of a homeless social group on the organization of urban dynamics and its challenges to overcome this situation of extremely vulnerable situation. Considering Sao Carlos as reference group profile was characterized and limiting factor related to freshwater access and use were adressed. Social suffering experience was taken into account on the poor interaction the town territory as a relevant empirical knowledge, which could eventually assist the formulate and implement socially inclusive urban policies.

"Although there have been some benefits accruing form privatisation in Africa generally and South Africa in particular, the exercise has impacted negatively on socio-economic rights and service delivery. With privatisation, the role of the state in the provision of these services has been taken over by private service providers over which states have no direct control or have failed to exercise control. Although it ought to be acknowledged that there has been an increase in the production levels of some goods and utility services, for instance water and electricity, it is unfortunate that with several people increasingly losing their jobs as public enterprises are privatised, they cannot afford to pay the increased costs of these services. This has been the case with water privatisation in South Africa where the 'full cost recovery' model and the introduction of 'pre-paid metres' have led to disconnections of water to those who are unable to pay, thus reducing access. As a result, since 1994, over 10 million South Africans have had their water disconnected. The main problem has been 'profit motives and cost recovery' on the one hand versus 'poverty, unemployment and inability to pay' on the other. This inevitably impacts negatively on the right of access to sufficient water and also affects the enjoyment of other socio-economic rights and services like food, housing, health care, inter alia. ... This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter one will set out the content of the research, identify the problem and outline the methodology. Chapter two gives a general coverage of privatisation and its inter-relationship with socio-economic rights and services. Chapter three covers the international and regional legal regime governing the protection, respect, promotion and fulfilment of socio-economic rights. It also covers the obligations of both the state and non-state actors. Chapter four will analyse the water privatisation exercise in South Africa, and how it has impacted on the enjoyment of the right of access to water. Based on the findings in chapter four, chapter five will evaluate the privatisation process and determine whether it complies with international and constitutional human rights obligations, followed by recommendations and a conclusion." -- Introduction. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2004. / Prepared under the supervision of Prof. Pierre de Vos at the Faculty of Law, University of the Western Cape, South Africa / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Tanker water markets (TWM) supply water services in many urban areas, including those unconnected to public infrastructures. Notwithstanding, they have been associated with outcomes in conflict with sustainability goals of water policy, e.g., through inequitable and unaffordable supply or by contributing to groundwater overexploitation. So far, the literature dedicated to TWM has primarily conducted case studies embedded in diverse local contexts, which impedes the comparison and transfer of insights. In this article, we systematically summarize existing empirical knowledge on TWM and assess to what extent normative claims about the impacts of TWM on sustainability goals are supported by evidence. We use the concept of sustainable access, which combines notions of what constitutes access to water and what characterizes sustainable supply of services. The available evidence suggests that TWM have two key functions in urban water systems: (1) They provide services at otherwise unavailable levels, particularly with respect to the temporal availability and spatial accessibility of the service, and (2) they extend access to areas without or with low-quality network supply, typically low-income communities on the fringe of cities. From the perspective of sustainable access, we find that TWM can provide high service levels and thus fill a specific gap in the landscape of urban water services. Due to comparatively high prices, however, it is unlikely that these services are affordable for all. The combination of heterogeneous access to cheaper (subsidized) piped water and marginal pricing in TWM results in allocation outcomes that are not coherent with existing notions of equitable access to water. However, there is little convincing evidence that TWM necessarily result in unsustainable water use. The literature indicates that urban water governance in the studied areas is frequently characterized by a lack of effective institutions, which impedes the regulation or formalization of TWM.

The city of Bangalore in southern India is undergoing rapid urbanisation and administrative transition. Its growth puts pressure on the available water sources – being mainly the disputed inter-State River Cauvery and the hard-rock aquifers – with ensuing problems of access. These aspects affect how rights to and over water are fulfilled and perceived. Competition for drinking water is intensifying worldwide and over a billion people are estimated to lack safe access to it. Urbanisation and other demographic trends, along with globalisation and climate change, are adding to the changing patterns of water scarcity. The role of rights in attaining and improving access to water is undoubtedly great and often referred to in the general water management debate. The notion is analysed here as having three interlinked dimensions: the right to water as a human right; water in terms of property rights; and water rights. Law treats these rights, and thereby water, differently. For instance, groundwater has traditionally been thought of as invisible and unpredictable. Partly for this reason, it is still left largely unregulated in many parts of the world. In India, according to the proverb, ‘the landlord is a water lord’. This has effects on the claim for water as a human right. The dissertation shows that we cannot talk in terms of water and rights until we are aware of how complex rights apply simultaneously, and how they correspond to obligations.

Os parques públicos funcionam como equipamentos urbanos que melhoram a qualidade estética, funcional e ambiental da cidade, resultando em bem-estar para a população. A água de bebedouros e vaporizadores (aspersores) de água dos parques é fornecida pela rede pública de abastecimento. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a qualidade da água desses dispositivos de acesso à agua, em quatro parques municipais de São Paulo. As coletas foram realizadas durante treze meses (n= 552), para a quantificação de Escherichia coli, de bactérias heterotróficas e teor de cloro livre cujos resultados foram avaliados com base no padrão de potabilidade preconizado pela legislação brasileira vigente. A detecção de Staphylococcus aureus, uma das principais bactérias responsáveis por infecções humanas e pela resistência a antimicrobianos no mundo, também foi realizada. A avaliação das características dos isolados foi realizada de acordo com o preconizado pela Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA). A confirmação de espécies de S. aureus foi através da detecção dos genes nuc e coa, a verificação de virulência das cepas foi realizada pela detecção dos genes de virulência, sea, seg e luk-PVL relacionados à expressão de enterotoxinas, e a detecção do gene mecA relacionado a resistência a meticilina (MRSA). A resistência a antimicrobianos dos isolados, foi realizada por método de disco difusão e a avaliação de resistência à vancomicina pelo método de microdiluição em caldo (CIM) com base no Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). A presença de S. aureus foi detectada em 23 amostras distribuídas entre os parques estudados, representando 22,2% das amostras de bebedouro e 6,6% das amostras de aspersores, respectivamente. O gene mecA foi detectado em 73,91% (17/23) dos isolados de S. aureus encontrados em 23 amostras. A expressão de resistência a antimicrobianos dos isolados foi diversificada e 17,6 % dos isolados detectamos fenotipicamente eram Staphylococcus aureus Resistente a Meticilina (MARSA). Não detectamos nenhum dos genes de virulência nas amostras, como também resistência e/ou sensibilidade reduzida à Vancomicina. A presença de S. aureus em água potável para o consumo humano encontrado neste estudo é um achado inédito, se fazendo necessário a vigilância de água potável para o consumo humano para patógenos, como S. aureus. / Public parks role as urban facilities is to improve the aesthetic, functional and environmental quality of the city, resulting in well-being for the population. Water fountains and mist maker is provided by the public water supply. The objective of this study was to evaluate the water quality of these water access devices in four parks of the São Paulo city. The samples were collected for thirteen months (n=552) for the quantification of Escherichia coli, heterotrophic bacteria and free chlorine content. The results were evaluated based on the potability standard recommended by the Brazilian normalization. The detection of Staphylococcus aureus, one of the major responsible for human infections and antimicrobial resistance in the world, was also performed. The evaluation of the characteristics of the isolates was carried out according to the recommendations of the National Sanitary Surveillance Agency (ANVISA). Confirmation of S. aureus species was carried out through the detection of nuc and coa genes, the virulence of the strains was performed by detecting the following genes: sea, seg and luk-PVL related to enterotoxin expression, and the detection of mecAc gene related to methicillin resistance. The antimicrobial resistance of the isolates was carried out by disc diffusion method and the evaluation of resistance to vancomycin by the broth microdilution method (CIM) based on the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). The presence of S. aureus was detected in 23 samples distributed among the studied parks, representing 22.2% of the drinking water samples and 6.6% of the mist maker samples, respectively. Seventeen isolates had mecA detection. The antimicrobial resistance expression of the isolates was diverse and 17.6% of the isolates phenotypically detected were Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). It is not detected any of the studied virulence genes for the isolates neither resistance and/or reduced sensitivity to vancomycin. The presence of S. aureus in drinking water for human consumption study is an unprecedented finding, put in evidence the necessity for surveillance of drinking water for human consumption.

El crecimiento económico agroexportador en el valle de Ica se ha llevado a cabo concentrando la tierra y las fuentes de agua subterránea. Este proceso ha dado mayor poder a las empresas agroexportadoras, las cuales responden individualmente a la demanda del mercado internacional. El incremento en la demanda externa de los productos del valle genera importantes beneficios privados, pero inhibe la acción colectiva para la conservación del acuífero. Cada empresa decide la cantidad de pozos a perforar y el volumen de agua subterránea que debe extraer, dados los requerimientos técnicos de los cultivos; y ante una débil regulación pública. La mayor extracción con respecto a la reserva y disponibilidad de agua lleva a un descenso del volumen del acuífero y a un deterioro del recurso común y consecuente escasez. / The economic growth experienced in the agricultural export sector in the Ica Valley has gone along with the concentration of land and groundwater sources. This process has given more power to the exporting companies, which respond individually to demand from international markets. The external demand increase of Ica valley’s products generates significant private gains, but inhibitscollective action towards the conservation of the aquifer. Each company decides the number of wells to be drilled and the volume of groundwater to be drawn, given the technical requirements of the crops and the weak government regulation. The increased extraction compared to the reserve and availability of water, leads to a decrease in the volume of water in the aquifer and to the degradation of the common and consequent scarcity.The research has followed the institutional economy approach to analyze the inter-relations between the social, the technological and the public policies in Ica’s Valley looking for an interdisciplinary perspective.

La thèse analyse la trajectoire du problème de l’accès à l’eau en France, sur trois décennies. Dans un contexte de « nouvelle pauvreté », on constate le passage progressif d’une logique d’action publique fondée sur l’assistance discrétionnaire à une logique de solidarité basée sur des droits sociaux. On retrouve ce glissement tant dans le domaine du logement, de l’énergie, que de l’eau. Pour l’eau, se dessine une trajectoire qui nous conduit du « social de l’eau » à « l’eau sociale ». Le social de l’eau est basé sur : l’affirmation d’un droit à l’aide ;l’externalisation de la gestion de cette aide ; le rôle de contributeur des services pour cette gestion ; une approche curative des problèmes. En regard, le modèle de l’eau sociale se fonde sur : l’internalisation de la question sociale dans des services d’eau, jouant désormais un rôle plus actif ; l’instauration d’un droit à l’eau ; l’émergence d’une approche préventive des problèmes. / This doctoral thesis analyses the trajectory of the problem of access to water for low-income customers in France over the last three decades. In a context of “new poverty”, we observe a gradual evolution from logics of public action based on discretionary assistance to logics of solidarity based on social rights. This evolution can be observed in different fields including housing, energy and water. In the case of water, we uncover a trajectory leading from “welfare of water” to“social water”. The welfare of water is based on: the assertion of a right to receive help, the externalization of the right to this help, the contribution of utilities to its management and funding, and a curative approach to problems. However, “social water” is based on: the internalization of the social issue in water utilities - which play from now on a more active role - , the instauration of a right to water, and the emergence of a preventive approach to problems.

This thesis solves the territory of the island and surrounding areas in the district Husovice. The island is defined by Svitava river and mill flume. The aim was to solve the areas, with an emphasis on the waterfront and use the potential of city's waterways. The task was also to design different forms of access to the water and logically connetct it with the designed buildings. The proposal also incorporates existing brownfield and creates a functioning urban structure which takes advantage of its location near watercourses.

Die vorliegende Arbeit versucht einen Begriff der Versorgungsgerechtigkeit im Kontext der Trinkwasserversorgung zu konturieren, der auf Nachhaltigkeit hin programmiert ist. Das bedeutet im Sinne des Drei-Säulen-Modells der Nachhaltigkeit, dass beim Verfolg dieses sozialen Zieles, sogleich die ökologischen und ökonomischen Bedingungen mit-gedacht werden sollen. Zugrunde liegt die Annahme, dass so auch das soziale Ziel bes-ser erreicht werden kann. Grundkonzept ist vor diesem Hintergrund, einen Begriff der Versorgungsgerechtigkeit zu entwickeln, der das Spannungsfeld der aristotelischen Unterscheidung von iustitia distributiva und iustitia commutativa umgreift. Erstere richtet ihren Blick auf den ein-zelnen privaten Haushalt mit seinen Bedarfen und Möglichkeiten. Hier stellt sich für diese Arbeit besonders und in erster Linie die Frage, welche Bedingungen seiner Was-sernachfrage jeweils für den Haushalt zumutbar sind. Letztere sorgt hingegen für einen (Interessen-) Ausgleich zwischen dem jeweiligen Wasserkonsumenten und all jenen Teilen der Gesellschaft (inkl. ökologischer Umwelt), die von dieser Wassernutzung be-troffen sind (stakeholder). Sie schlägt den Bogen zu den ökologischen und ökonomischen Nachhaltigkeitsbelangen. Dieses Spannungsfeld wird übertragen auf den Begriff des „Zugangs“, der in der Recht-auf-Wasser-Debatte Grundlage für eine Debatte zur Umsetzung ist. Richtet man den Blick – auf „Zugang“ – auf die Zugangshürden (z. B. der Wasserpreis), dann wird deutlich, dass diese Hürden (potenziell) Nachhaltigkeitsfunktionen erfüllen (z. B. Refinanzierung von Dienstleistungen, Schutz aquatischer Ökosysteme). Das zentrale Ergebnis lautet: Versorgungsgerechtigkeit, mithin ein „angemessener Zugang“, ist gegeben, wenn die Zugangshürden, denen sich der Nutzer gegenübersieht (nachhaltigkeits-)funktional, zumutbar und außerdem nicht-diskriminierend sind. Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wird u. a. das Verhältnis von Funktionalität und Zumut-barkeit definiert, werden Messkonzepte zur Zumutbarkeit (affordability) betrachtet und werden Ansatzpunkte einer Politik der Versorgungsgerechtigkeit diskutiert.:Kapitel 1: Einleitung Kapitel 2: Die Versorgung mit Wasserdienstleistungen als ökonomisches Allokationsproblem Kapitel 3: Versorgungsgerechtigkeit und Wasserpreis Kapitel 4: Versorgungsgerechtigkeit und Güterzugang: Zur Umsetzung eines Rechts auf Wasser Kapitel 5: Die Zumutbarkeit der pekuniären Hürde „Preis“: Zur Messung von affordability Kapitel 6: Instrumente der Versorgungsgerechtigkeit Kapitel 7: Zusammenfassung, Fazit und Ausblick

L’objectif de ce mémoire est d’examiner l’accès à l’eau d’un point de vue non pas technologique mais social. Toute société humaine a eu à régler la question de l’accès à l’eau. C’est particulièrement le cas des populations vivant sous un climat aride comme au Sahel, où cette ressource est rare. Le village d’étude est situé au nord du Burkina Faso, dans la région du Yatenga. J’examinerai d’abord la répartition temporelle et spatiale des groupes et des puits sur le territoire, puis la question de la régulation de l’accès à l’eau en tant qu’enjeu politique au sein des structures traditionnelles. Je montrerai qu’il permet tantôt de renforcer les hiérarchies sociales existantes, et tantôt de les dépasser. J’examinerai enfin l’accès à l’eau de différents groupes d’usagers : femmes, hommes, jeunes, vieux, agriculteurs, éleveurs. Je montrerai que leur condition d’accès est implicitement régulée, et limite les possibilités d’expansion économique de certains d’entre eux. Dans cette société en mutation, les usagers désavantagés peuvent développer des tactiques leur permettant de contourner ces contraintes. L’accès à l’eau est alors pris dans un jeu de stratégies antagonistes, celle de la reproduction sociale et celle du changement. / The purpose of this report is to examine access to water, not from a technological but from a social point of view. Any human society has had to cope with the issue of access to water. This is especially true for the people living under arid climates such as in Sahel, where water is a limiting resource. The village under study is located in the Yatenga region, north of Burkina Faso. I will first examine the space and time distribution of wells and of human groups in this territory, then I will question the regulation of access to water as a political issue within traditional structures. I will show that it contributes to sometimes strengthen and sometimes circumvent patterns of social hierarchy. Then I will study access to water in different social groups: women, men, younger and older people, elders, farmers, herders. I will show that their access to water is implicitly checked, thus limiting opportunities of economical improvement for some of them. In this developing society, disadvantaged users may develop tactics to circumvent these constraints. Thus access to water is taken between conflicting strategies, pertaining to social reproduction as opposed to social change.