University of Macau / Faculty of Law

In light of Sweden ratifying the United Nations Convention on the rights of the child, Swedish law supports the right for children to express their opinions and have their voice heard in situations concerning them. The aim of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of young people’s participation, by investigating how young people’s opinions and attitudes are taken into account in decision making concerning the lack of care shown in 2§ The Compulsory Care of Young Persons Act (1990:52). To explore this subject, this study was based on the textual analysis of 16 court cases from the administrative court from the year 2016, concerning young people aged between 15-18 years old. We found that young people’s opinions and attitudes are generally taken into account in the process of compulsory care. Our results indicate that young people’s opinions and attitudes are taken into account to a higher extent in the whole legal process when the decision of the administrative court corresponds with the young person’s opinion and attitude. In cases where the court’s decision did not correspond with the young person’s opinion and attitude, the opinions and attitudes of children were taken into account to a lesser degree. Our analysis has shown, according to the Ladder of Participation, that all young people can be seen as participators in the process of compulsory care. However, children’s participation is a complex phenomenon and additional research is needed to unpack this subject further.

This dissertation deals with court-executive relations in post-authoritarian Argentina (1983-2006). Specifically, I analyse Supreme Court behaviour in highly sensitive cases to determine whether the tribunal has cooperated with or obstructed the government’s policy preferences in three key policy areas: human rights, economic emergency and pensions. This innovative type of approach – i.e., focusing on a small number of highly sensitive decisions – allows me to concentrate on cases that are genuinely important for the government or, more precisely, for the country’s political administration. There are cases that are significant for the State apparatus but irrelevant for the president (thinking of politicians as self-interested actors). My research uses a rational choice approach to courts, underscoring the strategic nature of judicial behaviour. This vision of judges provides a more accurate account of judicial-executive relations by bringing politics into the study of courts. By focusing exclusively on attitudes and apolitical jurisprudence, other visions take for granted the institutional context. Political stability, for example, cannot be assumed in many developing democracies. My findings indicate that the Argentine Supreme Court has consistently avoided obstructing the president’s policy preferences. Such behaviour is motivated by strategic considerations: judges are risk-averse actors that avoid clashing with the executive. For most of the time, the Supreme Court has operated under unified government, which increases the chances of being punished for anti-government decisions. Two other factors also account for the court’s risk-averse behaviour. First, procedural rules grant the Supreme Court wide discretion over its docket. The tribunal has used such discretion to strategically select the timing of its decisions. Second, recurrent democratic breakdowns have repeatedly led to attacks against the court, such as impeachment, irregular dismissals, and/or enlargements. Third, politicians exert broad control of judicial promotions, allowing them to block the careers of independent, courageous judges that act as a check on political power.

Dans Németh c. Canada (Justice) (2010), la Cour suprême vient à la conclusion qu’il est possible, pour le ministre de la Justice, d’autoriser l’extradition d’un réfugié dans la mesure où cette dernière n’est pas injuste ou tyrannique, et qu’elle ne vise pas à punir la personne pour des motifs de persécution. Le juge Cromwell précise qu’il n’est pas nécessaire de révoquer le statut de réfugié avant le processus d’extradition ; le ministre n’a qu’à démontrer que les clauses de cessation se trouvant dans la Loi sur l’immigration et la protection des réfugiés s’appliquent. Cela implique qu’il doit faire la preuve, selon la balance des probabilités, que les réfugiés n’ont plus de raison de craindre la persécution dans leur pays d’origine, en établissant qu’il y a un changement stable de circonstances. Toutefois, le processus actuel d’extradition n’assure pas pleinement les protections procédurales auxquelles ont droit les réfugiés, dans la mesure où la Loi sur l’extradition accorde un pouvoir discrétionnaire au ministre de décider, au cas par cas, qui devrait avoir droit à une audition orale pour étayer sa cause. Puisque la possibilité de persécution au retour reste une question empreinte de subjectivité et fait appel à la crédibilité, il est du devoir du ministre d’accorder une forme d'audition aux réfugiés afin d’offrir de solides garanties procédurales. Or, la Cour n’est pas allée jusqu’à prescrire un tel devoir. Dans ce mémoire, nous nous interrogeons sur l’étendue des protections procédurales qui devraient être accordées à un réfugié menacé d’extradition. / In Németh v. Canada (Justice) (2010), the Supreme Court concludes that it is possible for the Minister of Justice to surrender a refugee facing extradition, unless it is unjust or oppressive or the discrimination clause can be applied. Cromwell J. established it isn't necessary to revoke the refugee status prior to the extradition; the Minister only has to demonstrate that the change of circumstances in the refugee's country may lead to the cessation of refugee protection. This implies that the Minister must come forward with evidence of changed circumstances and be satisfied on the balance of probabilities that the refugee no longer needs protection in Canada. Unfortunately, the extradition procedures do not properly ensure the substantive fundamental justice and protections sought by refugees. There is no discussion on a possibility to properly respond to the Minister's evidence. However, there must be an opportunity for them to disprove the evidence, especially because it is a subjective matter which challenges the refugees' credibility. Therefore, it is the Minister's responsibility to ensure there is a hearing to comply with fundamental justice. Nevertheless, the Court didn’t go on to prescribe such an obligation to the Minister. In this research, we will then ask ourselves which procedural safeguards should be given by the Minister of Justice to refugees facing extradition.

This thesis asks how manifestation of religious belief by religious individuals can best be protected in English law. It is particularly concerned with the protection available to religious individuals in the public sphere. This thesis assesses the current state of protection under religious freedom and religious discrimination models, before considering the potential for increasing protection by reconceptualising the right to manifest religious belief as an aspect of freedom of expression. This thesis asks whether the practical and conceptual limitations of a religious freedom model, and Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in particular, can be overcome by reliance on alternative modes of protection, namely religious discrimination protections in domestic, Convention, and EU law, or through litigating religious manifestation claims as freedom of expression cases under Article 10 of the ECHR. The difficulty of communicating the harm in being denied the ability to manifest religious beliefs publicly is a key limitation of both religious freedom and religious discrimination models. Similarly, this thesis highlights the difficulty in assessing what weight should be attributed to such religious harm within a proportionality exercise balancing the rights of religious individuals with the rights and interests of other parties. The analysis in this thesis draws primarily upon the sources of law which shape domestic English law in this area, namely the ECHR and European Union law. However, this thesis also considers foreign precedent and case law from the United States in particular. This thesis contends that no one model can address the range of cases where manifestation of religious beliefs arise, and that litigants should be able to draw from religious freedom, religious discrimination, and freedom of expression protections depending on the nature of their case.

1 Resume The thesis is divided into two large units, on a theoretical and practical part. Follow the practical part of the work is to be divided on an assessment of selected aspects that are covered by municipal and provincial governments at the European level and in this context, then followed by a separate section on comparative evaluation of the scope of local government in selected European countries. I will focus first on the theoretical part. The issue of regions and municipalities evaluate first in the context of Czech legislation and then subsequently focus on each selected legislation relating to European legislation related to issues of regions and municipalities. Choice of thesis topic was selected based on an appropriate combination of administrative law issues and focus on the broader context of legislation within the EU, which focuses mainly practical part. With regard to the comparison of the Czech legislation and issues of European legislation, so we can get a rich variety of assumptions and considerations, which could be formulated in the context of the considerations de lege fedenda at the level of regions and municipalities. The main concept of the theoretical part is the local authority. Can we talk about the fact that public administration is carried out at its lowest possible level,...

Les accords environnementaux sont des conventions entre les entreprises et les autorités publiques utilisées comme des alternatives à la réglementation environnementale. Ces instruments ont été créés par les administrations nationales dans les années 1980 pour négocier la régulation de l'impact environnemental des entreprises et de leurs produits. L'utilisation de ces instruments s'est ensuite répandue dans tous les pays de l'OCDE et en particulier dans les États membres de l'Union européenne. Puisque les administrations nationales sont chargées de l'exécution du droit communautaire, la migration des accords environnementaux des ordres juridiques nationaux au système juridique de l'Union européenne n'était qu'une question de temps. Ainsi, malgré le silence des Traités institutifs à leur sujet, les accords environnementaux sont devenus des instruments de l'administration européenne composée, utilisés au niveau national et au niveau communautaire. Cependant, ce nouvel instrument, intégré sans modification des Traités, soulève des questions juridiques multiples et complexes. Les auteurs des accords les utilisent-ils dans le respect du système juridique de l'Union ? Quel est l'impact de ces instruments sur l'évolution de l'administration européenne et au-delà, sur l'ordre juridique communautaire ? Quelle est leur nature juridique ? Quelle est leur portée ? Comment sont-ils adoptés et contrôlés ? / Environmental agreements are legal arrangements between undertakings and public authorities, used as alternative instruments to environmental regulation. Environmental agreements were created by national administrations around the 1980s to negotiate the reduction of the environmental impact of companies or products. The use of these instruments spread in all OECD countries and especially in the Member States of the European Union. As the administrations of the Member States are responsible for the implementation of European law, the migration of environmental agreements from national legal orders to the European legal order was only a matter of time. Indeed, despite the silence of the European treaties, environmental agreements became instruments of the European administration, both at national and at European level. However, this new instrument, used without a modification of the European Treaties raises complex legal issues. Do the authors of environmental agreements respect the European legal order when using them? What is the impact of these instruments on European administration and beyond, on the European legal order? What are their legal nature and effects? How are they adopted, monitored and reviewed? This study, the first monograph focused on environmental agreements in the European legal order, finds answers to these questions by analyzing the relevant provisions, which restrain the leeway of environmental agreements authors but, at the same time, are interpreted by them to maintain their discretion as much as possible

[pt] A presente dissertação tem por objetivo analisar o fenômeno da constitucionalização do Direito Administrativo e a conseqüente releitura de dois princípios basilares deste ramo do direito: os princípios da legalidade e da legitimidade administrativas. Após algumas considerações introdutórias e a apresentação do tema no capítulo I, o trabalho analisará, no capítulo II, o nascimento e a evolução do Direito Administrativo, com o intuito de demonstrar que a concepção clássica deste ramo do Direito deve passar por uma leitura constitucional, em tempos de constitucionalização do ordenamento jurídico. No capítulo III, o enfoque será o estudo do princípio da legalidade e a sua evolução ao longo dos tempos. A concepção liberal deste princípio, consagrado no Estado Liberal de Direito, entra em crise. A lei deixa de ocupar o papel de protagonista do ordenamento jurídico para dar lugar à Constituição. O desprestígio do Parlamento, bem como a celeridade e complexidade da vida moderna, acabam por gerar a ampliação do poder normativo das entidades administrativas localizadas fora do Poder Legislativo. Com isso, institutos como a deslegalização e a reserva da administração, bem como a figura do regulamento autônomo, ganham destaque no debate jurídico atual. Ao invés do respeito apenas à lei formal, a atuação administrativa deve adequar-se ao ordenamento jurídico como um todo, o que acarreta a consagração do princípio da juridicidade. Em seguida, no capítulo IV, o estudo tecerá considerações sobre as concepções clássicas de legitimidade e demonstrará a necessidade de se reforçar a legitimidade democrática da Administração Pública através de instrumentos efetivos de participação do cidadão na tomada de decisões e elaboração de normas administrativas. O capítulo V, por sua vez, demonstrará que a releitura dos princípios da legalidade e da legitimidade administrativas pode ser verificada, com mais exatidão, na formatação das agências reguladoras. A discussão em relação à constitucionalidade do modelo regulatório adotado pelo ordenamento jurídico pátrio passa necessariamente pela compatibilidade com os princípios em comento. Por fim, no capítulo VI, a titulo de conclusão, o trabalho apontará a importância do princípio da juridicidade no âmbito do estado Democrático de Direito. / [en] The main goal of this dissertation is to analyze the phenomena of constitutionalization in Administrative law and the resulting reconsideration of two basic pilars underpinning this field of Law: the principles of legality and of administrative legitimacy. After some introductory considerations followed by the presentation of the main theme in the first Chapter, the author will review, in the second Chapter, the emergence and evolution of Administrative Law in order to demonstrate that, in view of the current constitutionalization of the legal system, the constitutional perspective should be added to the classic conception of Administrative Law. The third Chapter will focus on the study of the legality principle and how it evolved through times. The liberal view of this principle, the cornerstone of the Liberal Rule of Law, comes to a crisis. The Law becomes less and less the leading agent of the legal order while this role is assigned to the Constitution. The decreasing prestige of Parliament as well as the complexity and the ever-faster pace of modern life end up extending the normative power to administrative entities found outside the realm of the Legislative Branch. Therefore, institutes such as the de-legalization and the administrative reserve, as well as the institute of -autonomous regulation-, gain prominence in the current public debate. Instead of owing respect only to the formal Law, the administrative arena should also adjust itself to the legal order as a whole, which means that the -principle of jurisdicity- becomes paramount. Subsequently, in the fourth Chapter, the study will discuss the classic conceptions of legality and will demonstrate the need to reinforce the democratic legitimacy in Public Administration by means of effective instruments allowing citizens to be part of the decision-making process and of the development of administrative norms. The fifth chapter, in turn, will demonstrate how the re- consideration of the principles of legality and administrative legitimacy can be more accurately verified in the way regulatory agencies were formatted. Any discussion on the constitutionality of the regulatory model adopted by the legal order in Brazil necessarily includes compatibility with the principles under discussion The sixth chapter will conclude the study pointing out the importance of the -principle of jurisdicity- under the Democratic Rule of Law.

O objeto da dissertação é a regulamentação do uso indevido de informação privilegiada no mercado de capitais. Discute-se no texto qual seria a melhor maneira de reprimir a conduta praticada pelo insider trading, concluindo-se que o sistema ideal seria não mais a dupla repressão como ocorre atualmente, mas sim a separação entre as esferas administrativa e penal. A primeira julgaria as infrações de menor gravidade, deixando apenas as que efetivamente causassem potencialidade lesão grave ao bem jurídico sob a tutela do direito penal. Ante a necessidade de compreensão do contexto em que o delito de uso indevido de informação privilegiada ocorre, o trabalho inicia-se com um breve panorama do mercado de capitais, no qual se trata da formação do mercado de valores mobiliários, das bolsas de valores e das sociedades anônimas. Assim, no primeiro capítulo trata-se da regulamentação do mercado de capitais no Brasil, em especial, das Leis 6.385/1976, a qual regula o mercado de valores mobiliários brasileiro e traz a descrição do tipo penal do crime do insider trading no artigo 27-D, e da Lei 6.404/1976, que regula as sociedades anônimas no Brasil, e trata dos deveres de informar, de lealdade e de guardar sigilo impostos aos administradores das sociedades anônimas de capital aberto. No segundo capítulo, é feita inicialmente uma abordagem do que vem a ser o crime de insider trading e informação privilegiada, mencionando-se quais são argumentos contrários e a favor da repressão da conduta de utilização indevida de informação privilegiada. Na seqüência, faz-se uma breve análise da legislação estrangeira, com destaque para os países Estados Unidos da América, Espanha, Portugal e Itália. O terceiro capítulo trata da regulamentação do crime de insider trading no Brasil, iniciando-se com uma breve análise comparativa entre o tipo penal da legislação pátria e os das legislações estrangeiras estudadas no capítulo anterior. Em seguida, é analisada a tipicidade objetiva e subjetiva do tipo penal, concluindo-se que se trata de crime formal, que não admite tentativa e que se consuma no momento da utilização da 173 informação relevante ainda não divulgada ao mercado, independentemente da obtenção da vantagem indevida. Ainda no terceiro capítulo, trata-se do sujeito ativo e passivo do delito, concluindo-se que, de acordo com a redação do tipo penal, apenas quem tem o dever de manter sigilo pode ser responsabilizado criminalmente no Brasil pelo crime de insider trading, e que o sujeito passivo é a coletividade, a sociedade como um todo. Esse capítulo traz também o debate existente, sobretudo na doutrina estrangeira, de qual seria o bem jurídico tutelado pelo crime em comento. Dentre todas os possíveis bem jurídicos aventados, conclui-se que apenas a igualdade entre os investidores e a confiança no mercado de capitais são dignos de tutela penal e justificam a intervenção dessa esfera do direito. O quarto capítulo trata da relação existente entre o direito penal econômico e o crime de insider trading. Além de tratar das características do direito penal econômico, o capítulo traz críticas à expansão do direito penal moderno e trata da ineficiência da utilização da esfera penal para proteger de forma eficaz os delitos da moderna criminalidade econômica. O quinto e último capítulo trata justamente do título do trabalho: Direito Administrativo Sancionador e o Crime de Insider Trading. Nesse capítulo, explica-se o modelo proposto para sancionar a utilização indevida de informação privilegiada, iniciando-se por tratar da definição de direito administrativo sancionador e sua distinção entre o direito penal. Na seqüência trata-se da possível configuração de bis in idem existente atualmente com a aplicação de sanção administrativa e penal para o mesmo fato, para o mesmo sujeito e com o mesmo fundamento. Trata-se ainda do fortalecimento da CVM como agência reguladora para regulamentar, fiscalizar e punir com eficiência as utilização indevida de informação privilegiada, deixando para o direito penal apenas as infrações capazes de colocar em risco o mercado de capitais. Por fim, são expostas as conclusões do trabalho. / The object of this dissertation is the regulation of the misuse of privileged information in the capital market. It is discussed in the text which would be the best way to repress the conduct practiced by insider trading, concluding that the ideal system would be no more the double repression as currently occurs, but a single repression in administrative or criminal sphere according to the seriousness of the offense. The first would judge the lesser gravity infractions, leaving only those that actually caused any serious injury to the good under the legal protection of criminal law. Before the need to understand the context in which the offense of misuse of privileged information occurs, the dissertation begins with a brief overview of capital markets, in which it comes to the formation of the securities market, stock exchange, as well as corporations. Thus, the first chapter deals with (i) the regulation of the capital market in Brazil, in particular regarding Law 6.385/1976, which regulates the securities market of Brazil and contains a description of the type of criminal offense of insider trading, and (ii) the Federal Act 6.404/1976, which regulates corporations in Brazil and provides the duties to inform, loyalty and confidentiality imposed on directors of stock companies. In the second chapter, it is initially provided an approach of the concept of the insider trading crime, mentioning what are the arguments against and in favor of its repression. Subsequently, there is a brief analysis of foreign law, particularly the legislation of the United States of America, Spain, Portugal and Italy. The third chapter deals with the regulation of the insider trading crime in Brazil, beginning with a brief comparative analysis of criminal hyphotesis provided by Brazilian law and the foreign legislation analyzed in the previous chapter. Then, it is analysed the objective and subjective elements of the criminal hypothesis, concluding that it is a formal crime, which admits no attempt and that occurs at the time of use of relevant information not yet disclosed to the market, independently of obtaining improper benefit. The fourth chapter deals with the relationship between economic crime and insider trading crime. Besides approaching characteristics of the economic criminal law, the chapter provides critics to the expansion of modern criminal law and deals with the inefficiency of using the criminal sphere to protect society against the crimes of modern economic criminality. The fifth and final chapter deals with the relationship between punitive administrative law and insider trading crime. In this chapter it is explained the model proposed to penalize the misuse of inside information, starting with the definition of punitive administrative law and its distinction from criminal law. Following reference is to the possible configuration of bis in idem currently existing in the application of the criminal and administrative sanction for the same offense, same individual and on the same basis. In addition, it is also discussed the strengthening of the Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (the Brazilian Securities and Exchange Commission) as the regulatory agency authorized to regulate, inspect and punish effectively the misuse of inside information, leaving to the penal sphere only the criminal law offenses that are entitled to put the capital market in risk. Finally, the dissertation conclusions are exposed.

S’il est une activité judiciaire qui exprime à elle seule les métamorphoses de la fonction de juger, c’est bien celle de l’homologation, procédure judiciaire qui assure le contrôle d’actes déjà valides entre les parties ou qui le deviendront si leur conformité aux exigences du droit substantiel est judiciairement reconnue. Mais si l’homologation implique toujours un acte conventionnel auquel s’adjoint une intervention du juge, force est d’observer que les procédures d’homologation n’ont de commun que le nom. Car, ce que l’on désigne par homologation judiciaire, ce sont, en termes de finalités, des procédures distinctes les unes des autres. Il faut dire que les règles procédurales de l’homologation judiciaire dépendent fortement du droit substantiel en cause. Ici, le fond commande la procédure. C’est le droit de fond qui, dans chaque matière dans laquelle l’homologation est demandée, dicte sa conduite procédurale au juge. A preuve, l’étendue du contrôle judiciaire exercé sur l’acte des parties. Large en matière administrative et en droit du travail, le contrôle judiciaire est restreint dans le cadre des autres transactions extrajudiciaires. Qu’en est-il du régime des accords homologués ? C’est encore, et d’abord, une affaire de droit substantiel. On pourrait multiplier les exemples. Bornons-nous à l’autorité de la chose jugée, reconnue à l’accord homologué dans les matières pénale et de divorce consensuel, et refusée à l’acte notarié homologué en matière de changement de régime matrimonial. Chose jugée également reconnue aux transactions homologuées en matière administrative, mais refusée aux transactions homologuées dans les matières civiles. Ces brèves indications confortent sans doute cette idée que l’homologation judiciaire relève d’abord des exigences du droit substantiel. Elles expriment aussi le fait qu’il n’existe pas une, mais des notions d’homologation. Partant, l’activité judiciaire d’homologation des actes juridiques se prêtera mal à une théorie générale. / Judicial approval shows in a remarkable way how the function of judging contains different aspects. This Judicial activity is in itself a judicial procedure which ensures the control of agreements validly concluded between parties or which will become valid if their conformity with the requirements of substantive law is judicially recognized / if their conformity with the requirements of substantive law is established/ if these agreements fulfil the conditions required by the substantive law.If there is no doubt that the process of judicial homologation is unique, it must be however observed that the homologation procedures according to their purposes are distinct from each other. In fact, the procedural rules of judicial approval/judicial depend considerably on the substantive law to be applied. That’s why, it can be said in this context, that substantive law controls procedural law; for it is substantive law which determines the judge's procedural conduct when judicial approval is requested. The degree or level of the judicial control exercised over the agreements of the parties is a proof of this.What about the registration judgment regime? It is inspired by the substantive law of each subject in which the registration judgment is rendered. We could give more examples. Let us confine ourselves to the authority of res judicata, allowed in the approved agreement on divorce by mutual consent, and refused in the approved notarial deed on change of matrimonial regime. The authority of res judicata is also considered to be admitted for certified transactions in administrative matters, but rejected for certified transactions in civil matters. These brief indications probably support the idea that judicial homologation is primarily a matter of substantive law. In other words, contrary to what is often said in doctrine, homologation is a matter of substantive law before it is a procedural matter.